ON WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 21ST you will turn in a hard copy of a typed, three to five page paper (double spaced, reasonably sized font with page numbers) answering the following question:

How would you characterize the political beliefs of the American people in the year 2018?

There is no right or wrong answer for this question; reasonable people can honestly come to different conclusions. Given this, your grade will depend on you demonstrating that you are being reasonable in your conclusions, that is, when I have read your paper, I should be able to at least say, “Well, I’m not sure I agree with them, but I can see how a reasonable person can believe that.”

Based on the experience of grading papers on this topic since the turn of the century, I would say that doing the following gives you the best chance at getting a good grade on this paper:

First, explicitly answer the question.

You would be surprised how many papers I have read over the years that didn’t do this; I would get to the end of the paper and I would have no idea what they thought the answer to the question was. Since answering the question is what the paper is supposed to be about, you ought not be surprised to learn that those students did not get a good grade. So, answer the question; in fact, you should really do it do this in the very first paragraph. For example, you might say, “The political beliefs of the American people in the year 2018 can be called liberal.”

PLEASE NOTE: When I refer to political beliefs I mean concepts such as (but not restricted to) liberal, conservative, socialist, fascist, libertarian, communitarian, etc. As a result, when you answer the question you are going to say something like, “I believe the political beliefs of the American people in 2018 are liberal,” or “The American people in 2018 are conservative in their political beliefs,” or “I believe that the American people in 2019 have a mix of political beliefs” (saying we are not any one thing is an acceptable answer).

Second, define your terms.

Why do you have to do this? Because terms such as “liberal,” “conservative,” “socialist,” “libertarian,” etc. have different meanings depending on whom you ask. Since your definition of whatever belief you choose may not be mine, you need to give me the proper context for looking at your paper.

When defining your terms, please do the following:

One, give the complete definitions of whatever terms you’re using at the start of the paper. Defining your terms is setting out the markers by which the reader (me) will be able to measure your argument when determining if it is a reasonable one. Making changes and additions to the definitions as you go along means you are moving the markers, which makes it harder for the reader (me) to determine you are making a reasonable argument; in fact, moving the goalposts (to use a relevant metaphor) is generally indicative of a bad argument. So don’t add to or tweak your definition as you go along, because doing so will adversely affect your grade.

Two, only give as many definitions as you have to. If you are going to argue we’re liberal, all you have to do is define what you mean by “liberal”; it isn’t necessary to explain what “conservative,” “libertarian,” “socialist,” or any other belief is. Of course, if you think we’re a mix of political beliefs, you will need to define all the beliefs you think we’re a mix of, e.g., if you think we’re a mix of liberal and conservative, you will have to explain what you think “liberal” and “conservative” mean. Also, your definitions should be fairly brief; if you find yourself on page three and you’re still defining terms then you need to go back and edit your definitions (remember, this is only a three to five page paper).

A word of advice: you will probably come across definitions of liberalism or conservatism that will put a lot of emphasis on the concept of change, e.g., “A liberal is someone who favors change” or “A conservative is opposed to change.” Experience has shown that these definitions are too simplistic, because while being unsure about change is generally understood to be a conservative position (and note that that is different from being simply opposed to change), it is not necessarily true that liberals always favor change. For example, getting rid of Social Security or overturning Roe v. Wade (the Supreme Court case legalizing abortion) would be changes, but those are changes that liberals most certainly would NOT favor. If you feel you simply must use “change” in your definition, make sure you give some directionality to it, e.g., “liberals favor change that does X.”

Third, provide proof that we fit the definition.

Once you have put down the markers (by defining your terms) you need to provide some indication that we have reached those markers. If you were trying tell someone that the bird you’re looking at is a duck, you’d first define a duck by saying it’s a bird with a flat bill and webbed feet that quacks. Those are the markers. You would then point out that the bird you’re looking at has a flat bill, webbed feet, and is quacking. That’s the proof that it’s reaching those markers.

How much proof will you need? If you are arguing we are one thing, e.g. that the American people are conservative, you will need at least THREE (3) pieces of proof. If you are arguing we are more than one thing, e.g., that the American people are a mix of liberal and conservative, then you will need at least TWO (2) proofs for each thing you think we are – so, for example, if you think we’re a mix of liberal and conservative, you will need four proofs (two for each).

What constitutes proof? Since you are talking about the beliefs of the American people, you will have to use some measure of those beliefs. Experience has shown that the best way of measuring beliefs is by public opinion polls.

You will need to find polls indicating what a majority of the American people think (please note that a majority is more than 50% — ideally, you should look for polls that indicate a clear and solid majority (55% or more)), unless, of course, you are arguing that the American people have no coherent beliefs (as I noted above, that is an option).

There is a website called PollingReport.com (www.pollingreport.com) that contains many polls by reputable polling firms. You may look elsewhere for polls as well, but make sure you have reliable, scientific polls (for example, avoid any polls done online).

NOTE: When using polls, make sure to give the actual numbers, that is, make sure you say “57% support X,” not just “a majority support X.”

NOTE: Since the paper is asking about beliefs in the year 2018 your proof needs to be relatively recent. How recent? Polls from 2018, 2017, and 2016 are all right; anything before that is too far in the past.

In addition to public opinion polls, it is possible to use votes by members of Congress as a proxy for the beliefs of the American people. Members of Congress usually want to get reelected, so they generally do not try to tick off their constituents. If a VERY large percent of the members of Congress (80% or more of both the House and the Senate) vote for a policy, that is a pretty good indicator that the American people support that policy. Such votes would be acceptable as proof.

If you have something other than a poll that you think might work as evidence, please run it by me before proceeding.

PLEASE NOTE: The paper is asking you to discuss the beliefs of Americans in general. As a result, make sure you use proofs that talk about Americans in general. Discussions of what any particular subcategory of Americans believe is completely useless to this paper: for instance, polls showing that Millennials tend to be more liberal or that whites are somewhat more conservative do not work because they’re not about Americans as a whole.

If you have questions about whether what you have is usable as proof ask me.

ASIDE: You must cite your sources

Since your proof will be coming from outside sources, you must provide BOTH citations AND a works cited page. FAILURE TO DO SO WILL RESULT IN THE REDUCTION OF YOUR GRADE BY AT LEAST ONE FULL LETTER (for example, if you write a B level paper but fail to include both citations and a works cited page, you will get a C).

In terms of format, the details (parenthetical reference, footnote, endnote, etc.) I leave to you, but in the case of citing polls, the citation must include the following:

a) who conducted the poll (please note that PollingReport does not conduct polls; it merely reports polls done by others, and it is those others you must cite)

b) the dates when the poll was conducted (NOT the date you obtained the poll from the web: do NOT say something like “Web, Feb. 11, 2017”).

The works cited page must include:

a) who did the poll

b) the dates when the poll was conducted (DO NOT give the date you found the poll – again, something like “Web, Feb. 11, 2018” is NOT acceptable)

c) where you found the poll – in the case of a poll you found on the internet, you must have the EXACT address of the webpage you found the poll on (do not simply say pollingreport.com or gallup.com).

Fourth, explain how the proof fits the definition you have provided.

People often forget to do this because to their mind it just seems obvious how the proof fits the definition, so why bother to point out something that’s so obvious? Here’s the thing, though: just as your reader (me) may not define certain terms the same way you do – which is why you need to explicitly define your terms – they may not think the same way you do, so what is obvious to you may not be obvious to them.

I admit it: I am not telepathic. That means that when you assert something you can’t be sure that I will understand what you are thinking unless you explain it to me. For the best results, assume I’m a little slow, but not stupid; if you take me by the hand and carefully walk me through your reasoning, I will be able to follow along.

This is why defining your terms clearly at the beginning is important: because you will need to explain how the proof you provided fits that definition. Think of it like giving me a connect-the-dots puzzle but my hands are broken: you tell me it’s supposed to be a dog (that’s the definition part); you then point out all the dots (that’s the providing proof part); and then you draw the connecting lines for me to show me that it is, in fact, a dog (that’s the explaining how the proof fits the definition part).

Hypothetical situation: let us say that you have argued that the political beliefs of the American people are libertarian, and a libertarian is a person who believes in individual liberty. Let us suppose that you found a poll showing 70% of Americans opposing government regulation of the internet. You could argue that it supports your definition because it shows that most Americans oppose government controlling individuals, which means they support individual liberty, which is what libertarians believe in.

Fifth, wrap the whole thing up with a concluding paragraph.

This is not a writing class, but a well-crafted argument should follow the basic structure of introduction – body – conclusion.

In the introduction you should at least answer the question; depending on the length of your definitions you may also put them in the introductory paragraph or in a separate paragraph. Then, in your body you will lay out your proof and explain how each piece of proof fits your definition. Ideally, each proof and its explanation should have its own paragraph (so, three proofs, three paragraphs in the body). Finally, you should have a concluding paragraph where you tie everything together, e.g., “This paper has said that a X is someone who believes in A, B, and C. Through the examples of polls on the subjects of L, M, and N it has been seen that Americans believe A, B, and C. Since Americans believe in things that a X believes in, it is reasonable to conclude that Americans are X’s.”

A (hopefully) useful illustration of some of the things I’ve been talking about:

Suppose you were doing this question back in 2006, and you said Americans were generally conservative in their beliefs, and defined conservatism as “believing in adhering to tradition and custom and believing in order.” For one of your proof paragraphs you might have written something like this:

“The position of most Americans on same-sex marriage supports the idea that Americans are generally conservative in their beliefs. According to Gallup, 56% of Americans think same-sex marriages should not be recognized as valid by the law with the same rights as traditional marriages (Gallup, May 8th-11th, 2006). For centuries even before the United States existed marriage has been understood to be the union of a man and a woman, and by showing opposition to changing that, a clear majority of Americans are demonstrating an adherence to tradition and custom.”

Then, on your works cited/bibliography page you would have something like this:

Gallup Poll. May 5-11, 2006. “Do you think marriages between same-sex couples should or should not be recognized by the law as valid, with the same rights as traditional marriages?” http://pollingreport.com/lgbt2.htm

Some (hopefully) useful advice for those having a hard time getting a handle on what to do:

 

One, make sure you have a clear definition for anything you want to talk about (liberal, conservative, etc.).  

 

Two, pick some issue, e.g., health care, immigration, crime, etc., and ask yourself, “Based on the definition I came up with, what would a (liberal, conservative, etc.) think about this issue in general?”

 

Three, look at poll questions on that issue and ask yourself, “Given the way I defined them in Step One, how would a (liberal, conservative, etc.) answer that question?”  Make sure you can explain why in terms of your definition they would answer the question that way. 

 

Four, look at the actual results of the polls.

For example, if you think, given the way you’ve defined, say, conservative, a conservative would answer “Yes,” to the poll question, and you see that 58% of Americans said “Yes” in the poll, then that would tend to suggest that Americans are conservative on that issue.  When doing the paper, you would give your definition of conservative (either in your introductory paragraph or immediately thereafter), then in a separate proof paragraph you would cite that particular poll, take note of the 58% saying “Yes,” and explain why, in terms of the definition of conservative you have previously laid out, “Yes” is a conservative position.

Pitfalls to avoid, or, the dreaded DO NOT DO section:

While I hate to be a downer trying to cramp your style, years of experience have indicated that there are certain things that just don’t work for this paper. Writing can be a minefield; think of this section as a map to where the mines are so you don’t step on them and blow away your chance for a good grade.

When answering the question DO NOT talk about political parties.

When talking about political beliefs I do NOT mean political affiliations such as Democrat, Republican, etc. While political parties in the United States have become more ideologically consistent over time, they still remain primarily coalitions of people who come together to achieve common policy goals, and common policy goals do not necessarily mean common political beliefs. While they have become rarer over time, there are still such things as conservative Democrats and liberal Republicans.

DO NOT refer to the political parties in this paper.

Seriously, do not talk about the Democratic or Republican Parties at all in this paper; experience shows that when students try to bring the political parties into this discussion, it almost always causes problems, so avoid that headache.

When defining your terms:

DO NOT spend the bulk of your paper defining your terms; as noted above, if you find yourself on the third page and you’re still defining terms, go back and start pruning.

DO NOT add additional nuances to your definition as you go along in the paper; doing so will adversely affect your grade.

DO NOT use definitions that rely on policies, e.g., “A conservative is someone who favors smaller government and the death penalty.”

Why not?

Because different beliefs can lead to the same policies, but for very different philosophical reasons. For example, both radical feminists and Christian conservatives oppose pornography, so it would be misleading to define radical feminism in a way that anyone who opposes pornography would, by definition, be a radical feminist. Policies are usually the manifestation of beliefs, not the cause of them. For example, libertarians favor smaller government because they are generally optimistic about people, that is, they believe most people are basically decent, rational individuals capable of managing their own affairs and so government isn’t necessary most of the time. Conservatives, however, favor smaller government because they are generally pessimistic about people, that is, they believe people are flawed and easily corrupted by power, so giving a lot of power (in the form of big government) to such people is dangerous. The policy of both groups is the same (smaller government), but the beliefs motivating them are very different, and the paper asks you about the beliefs.

ABSOLUTELY NOTE: DO NOT USE the definitions of liberal and conservative from the website Student News Daily (http://www.studentnewsdaily.com/conservative-vs-liberal-beliefs/). The definitions of liberal and conservative on that website rely too much on specific policies, e.g., they define a conservative as someone who believes in a strong national defense.

DO NOT use definitions that rely heavily on “change,” and if you’re going to use “change” in your definition, give it directionality, that is, “liberals favor change that does X.”

If you have any questions about whether your definition is all right, ask me.

When it comes to proof:

DO NOT use elections. Elections are not proof of political beliefs.

Why not?

First, turnout in U.S. elections usually runs between 40% (in midterm elections) and 60% (in presidential elections), so you’re not necessarily looking at most Americans (and even when turnout is 60%, if the winner only gets, say, 55% of the vote, that means they only have the support of about 1/3 of those eligible to vote (55%*60%), nowhere near a majority of Americans).

Second, people vote the way they do for a variety of reasons, many of which have nothing to do with political beliefs: for example, I knew someone who voted for Candidate X for president because they thought Candidate Y’s wife was crazy and didn’t want her to be First Lady. In addition, in 2016 the choice was between Clinton or Trump, two candidates who were disapproved of by most Americans. Consequently, many Americans did not vote for one of them because they shared the beliefs of that candidate, but because they did not want to see the other person get elected.

Third, as previously noted, the political parties are not the same as political beliefs.

All in all, then, you CANNOT argue that because the Republicans won the House of Representatives, the Senate, the presidency, and control most of the states that the American people are conservative (or any other political belief you want to ascribe to the Republican Party). In fact, if you make ANY argument based on the dominant electoral position of the Republican Party YOU WILL AUTOMATICALLY FAIL.

DO NOT use self-identification polls

There are polls where people are asked to self-identify as liberal, conservative, or moderate. See, for example:

http://www.gallup.com/poll/188129/conservatives-hang-ideology-lead-thread.aspx?g_source=conservative%20liberal%20moderate&g_medium=search&g_campaign=tiles

In recent years the results usually run something along the lines of roughly 35-40% identifying as conservative, 35-40% moderate, and 20-30% liberal. Do not use polls like these for your paper.

Why not?

The problem with using polls like these as proof is that different people have different ideas about what conservative, liberal, and moderate mean; one person might have a view of moderate that another person would view as conservative, for example. Remember, that’s why you have to explicitly define your terms for this paper: so that you and I are on the same page when it comes to definitions. These polls don’t define their terms, so everyone is using their own definition, and they may not line up. That tends to inject a bit too much subjectivity into a paper that is supposed to be an objective analysis.

DO NOT try to argue we are one thing by proving we are not something else.

This is NOT an either/or question; the range of possible answers is virtually unlimited. As such, you cannot prove that we are one thing by disproving we are something else (e.g., you cannot argue that since we are not liberal, we must be conservative, because we could be libertarian, socialist, communitarian, fascist, anarchist, etc.).

DO NOT get into the question of “why” Americans have the beliefs they do.

All this paper asks you to do is explain what the beliefs of the American people are. Why people have the beliefs they do can be very complicated and depends on the individuals. Trying to figure that out for literally hundreds of millions of Americans is well beyond the scope of this paper, so do not attempt to do so.

DO NOT get into a discussion of what you think about those beliefs.

Discussions of political beliefs can bring out very strong feelings in people, but this paper is NOT about feelings. This paper is supposed to be an objective analysis of American thinking, that is, the purpose of this paper is for you to look at the United States in a calm, coolheaded manner, and answer the question based upon your interpretation of the evidence.

Consequently, there should be no statements in your papers along the lines of “The American people are wise” or “The American people are stupid.” Editorializing of any sort will adversely affect your grade.

Remember, these are papers about what you think is the case, NOT what ought to be, and time spent passing judgment is time not spent answering the question you’re supposed to.

REMEMBER that the paper is about Americans in 2018. I am not interested in reading about what you think Americans used to be or what you think Americans will be in the future, e.g., something along the lines of “Americans are becoming increasingly liberal.” I am asking you to describe what you think Americans are RIGHT NOW. Experience has show that is more than enough of a task to fill a three to five page paper; do not give yourself more work that is not going to help your grade.

Finally*,

If you have any questions about this paper, please ask. I STRONGLY encourage you to do rough drafts and have me look them over and discuss them with you. The only thing I ask is that you bring me the rough draft in a timely fashion – and the day before the paper is due is NOT “in a timely fashion.” Even if you do not have a full rough draft, I will look at whatever you have, and at the very minimum I suggest that you run the definition you want to use by me to make sure there are no problems – and I may be able to offer some suggestions as to how you might proceed from there.

*about time, right?