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Database Design
Database Design
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1.0 Introduction
A database is used to store files in the form of tables, queries and even reports. Every file in a database consists of two or more records. A record on the other hand is formed by a collection of fields used to identify table columns. The table rows identify the records. A table having two or more tables can be used to extract a report or query through the help of relationship. A relationship refers to an association that exists between any entities in a relational database. Normalization is also done for various fields to eliminate the aspect of data redundancy within the database. Data redundancy makes it difficult to update records within database files due to the existence of data or information duplication. The duplicated data items within database files on the other hand compromises the integrity of information stored within the database. Therefore, all database elements and their characteristics should be considered in the process of creating a good and reliable database. Good practice of database design should thus be employed in order to come up with the needed structure that meets all the major requirements of database. The use of good practice as discussed in this paper will involve the employment of database design tools such as SQL for server, oracle, class diagrams, entity relationship diagrams among others in the design of either file or server database (Garvey, 2013, VanderLouw & Fisher, 2011).
2.0 The initial database design procedure
The procedure for database design consists of a number of steps. The first step involves the mission statement description together with the objectives of the mission. Second is the examination of the present database followed by the creation of the relevant data structures. The forth step is the determination and setting up of table relationships. Fifth is the determination and definition of rules for business. The next step involves the determination and description of views. The last step is the review of integrity for data (VanderLouw & Fisher, 2011).
2.1 Mission statement and mission objective description
The mission statement description will provide the reason and the focus for the database to be designed. It therefore describes the requirements to be met in addition to offering the course during design. The description in this case encompasses the serious examination of data or the kind of information required to complete the design work. The description of objective for the mission will stand for the common task that database users will be expected to carry out alongside the stored data within the database. The designer in this phase is expected to work with the owners, developers, managers and even users who will each offer insight as well as the description of the project objectives (VanderLouw & Fisher, 2011).
2.2 Database examination
This involves the analysis of the database. This stage can be considered to be optional in the case where by the previous or present database do not exist. The legacy (inherited) or paper based databases may form a number of present databases. The paper based can comprise of forms, folders, and index cards among other things. The analysis of the present database is very significant in providing an insight on how the organization uses information and data. In this case, the developer will pose questions to the stakeholders concerning how they want to use the database,, what they want to be modified or put into action as well as what they like from the existing system. The developer can then proceed to come up with various fields from the answers supplied in response to the questions posed. The generated fields are later evaluated for further improvement by the management team (VanderLouw & Fisher, 2011).
2.3 Creation of relevant data structures
The tables and their associated fields are described in this stage. The various types of keys such as primary keys and others are set together with the description of field requirements. The tables are also examined to ensure there is no data duplication within the fields of data. The definition of primary keys can then be done for unique identification of each record. The specifications of table fields are finally set up followed by interviews with users and the executive team. The structures then become ready for the next stage after review and refinement with users and executive (VanderLouw & Fisher, 2011).
2.4 Relationship determination and establishment
This comprises of database design process where interviews is also carried out with an aim of identifying the exact relationships with data. The connections between tables are also set up by means of primary keys. The possible relationship types include one-to-one, one-to-many (many-to-one and many-to-many relationships which can be shown clearly using entity relationship diagrams (ERDs) (Asha, Kumar & Kumar, 2014, VanderLouw & Fisher, 2011).
2.5 Determination and definition of business rules
The interview is still done here to identify the constraints and set up business rules. The description and implementation of tables for validation are also described in this stage. A good example of specific business rule is the setting of the maximum amount or order not to exceed a given level. Data integrity can be ensured by setting these constraints in place (VanderLouw & Fisher, 2011).
2.6. Determination and description of views
The views are described and determined at this stage. Interviews will also be conducted with the stakeholders in order to know the requirements for viewing and getting the right of entry into information and data. It is advisable to set and generate special views to aid in productivity of every control group given that every group of users will differently use the information. The views are then set in place once the interview process is over (VanderLouw & Fisher, 2011).
2.7 Assess the integrity for data
This will involve assessing every table to ensure that they are correctly designed and with the correct arrangement. Any existing inconsistency is also resolved at this stage with repeated assessment. The assessment and inspection of every field requirements, the review together with improvement are also done. The assessment and validity of associations of tables as well as the confirmation of associations or relationships are also stated. The assessment of business rules as well as the confirmation of constraints is also done here. This stage marks the end of the initial design process (VanderLouw & Fisher, 2011).
3.0. Conceptual, logical and physical database modeling
These forms the three stages in the design process of the database. The design begins with the conceptual modeling for the purpose of appreciating various data entities. The conceptual modeling can make use of unified modeling language (UML) class diagram notation for the design. Next is the logical modeling which includes the insertion for the particulars of the database without the actual implementation. Last is the physical modeling where the interaction of data model with the database is precisely determined. The entity relationship diagrams are used in this case to show the relationship that exists between various entities from different tables (Byrne & Qureshi, 2013, VanderLouw & Fisher, 2011). The entity relationship diagram (ERDs) is used as an abstract approach of database description. The structured query language (SQL) can be used for logical design (Asha, Kumar & Kumar, 2014).
4.0 Conclusion
The design of a functioning database call for strict following of the design procedure described above. The overall design is divided into two categories namely the initial design and the final three step design process consisting of conceptual, logical and physical design. The UML class diagrams, structured query language and entity relationship diagrams are the tools used in the conceptual, logical and physical modeling respectively. The design process should also consider all the database elements such as records, files, entities among others with precise evaluation of each.
Annotated Bibliography
Asha, N., Kumar, M. V., & Kumar, C. B. (2014). Construction of Database Design-A Reverse Engineering Process. International Journal of Computer Science & Information Technologies, 5(2).
This is a very important source for this paper because it explains various aspects of database design process which include the use of logical, conceptual and physical modeling in addition to relationship determination and establishment. The source explains how tools like UML and ERD can be used to accomplish conceptual and physical modeling respectively.
Byrne, B. M., & Qureshi, Y. S. (2013). The Use of UML Class Diagrams to Teach Database Modelling and Database Design. Friday 5th July 2013 University of Sunderland, 11
This source also explains about the various types of modeling in database design. It provides further explanations on the use of SQL statements, UML and ERD tools to achieve logical, conceptual and physical modeling parts of database design.
Garvey, M. (2013). USING ORACLE DEVELOPER TOOLS TO TEACH DATABASE DESIGN. Friday 5th July 2013 University of Sunderland, 25.
The source provides and explains the concepts of database that applies to good practice of database design. The concepts such as files, records, tables, normalization, and data redundancy among many other terms are explained. In addition, a number of tools such as ERD, class diagrams, My SQL are also mentioned.
VanderLouw, T., & Fisher, S. (2011). Highlights: File-based and Server-based Databases, Normalization and Redundancy, Relational Models and Entity Relationship Diagrams (ERD), Database Design, SQL Statements, Reports and Menus (UI).
This source is very crucial since it offers the guide on the steps of database design used in the initial stage. In addition, it also explains a number of database concepts required for good design. The design and modeling tools required for the three stages of the second part of design are explained in this source.
CONCUSSIONS ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONCUSSIONS ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Concussions annotated bibliography
Underwood, J. (2016). Under the Law: Schools should heed concerns over sports’ brain injuries. Phi Delta Kappan, 97(6), 74-75.
Underwood states that concussions have been occurring in the United States as students play in many instances and therefore this situation needs to be contained and handled in the best manner possible. Therefore he states that it is under this that the different governments in different states have made laws with regards to this and they have made it illegal for example a player to be taken back to the field immediately after they have suffered a concussion. Therefore it is an important aspect of the health of the players as they need to be protected from those factors which can lead them to have health issues. He gives an example of a student who was taken back to the field after just fifteen minutes of experiencing a concussion and due to this he developed brain injuries and his health deteriorated.
This article provides us with how the laws have been put into place and how effective they are in trying to control the adverse effects of concussions related to sports. Therefore this is a strength while on the other hand, the article leaves out what should be done for those concussions which are not diagnosed and not reported. This article, therefore, is of great importance and informs to a great extent a lot about the role of lawmakers in controlling and preventing concussions forms dominating or making the sporting activity lame.
Piazza, S. (2014). Why is it so hard to stop sports concussions?. American Scientist, 102(5), 346-349.
In this article, piazza informs us of how it is hard to stop sports concussions. Through his discussions, we are almost noticing that for sports concussions to stop then we may have to stop sports completely. He discusses and compares researches about woodpeckers’ inability to experience headaches yet they do so much work and use their beaks which are closely connected to their heads. Through the studies, he helps us understand how woodpeckers’ biology and way of doing things is, and therefore it is not easy for them to experience concussions or brain damage because they are specialized in a certain way to their way of living and their manner of doing things. However, for the human brain which if it receives a certain amount of energy it can be damaged there is a need to protect it since it is one of the most crucial and important parts of the human body. he brings to our attention the efforts to stop concussions by different researchers as they have been able to come up with such helmets such that they can tilt inside within themselves and therefore able to make it possible for the head not to experience any pressure or damage since the helmets are designed in a very good way to prevent damage. There are also other ways he suggests that can help us to stop concussions.
This is a very strongly argued paper as it presents us with the different types of information available about the damage to the brain especially through concussions and how this is very difficult to manage or to make possible for it to end. Therefore this article is a very informative one and it is comprehensive as well as thorough and therefore it is a very reliable resource in the research about concussions, how frequent they are, and how they can be stopped.
Giza, C. C., Prins, M. L., & Hovda, D. A. (2017). It’s not all fun and games: sports, concussions, and neuroscience. Neuron, 94(6), 1051-1055.
In this article, the authors present to us the issue of concussions, their relation to sports, and the link between concussions and neuroscience. In the neuroscience sphere, the authors present us with the different clinical aspects of concussions and how they are not able to be imaged using MRI. Giza et, al. supports the fact that it is a difficult situation for the clinicians and their wish and desire to identify the concussions especially the ones caused by sporting activities for early treatment and response, however, this is not easily possible. The only remaining option is for the symptoms to increase and from the conditions which were prevalent or causative towards the concussions to be identified through history and thus treated. Even though apart from this there are many researchers which are being done and which are important towards this area.
In the process of management and treatment, Giza et.al presents us with the different options for carrying this out which is presented in four steps and which include; prevention of additional injury, activity versus rest, energy, neutral-transmission, inflammation and sleep, and finally too good to be true treatments or other findings. The Lystedt Law in 2009 enacted in Washington state looks to protect the rights and the danger exposed to those who are in this field of sports and therefore it is a very important law in protecting the individuals’ sports members and making sure that they are not harmed by the type of sports they engage in. lastly Giza et, al discusses eh risks and the benefits of sports.
This is a very important article as it provides mainly the relationship between concussions and neuroscience and how neuroscience is useful in the treatment of those people who find themselves suffering from concussions. Not only this but it also talks of how neuroscience is trying to advance the treatment of this issue and therefore a very important article for this type of research which is based on concussions and their relation to sports as a causative agent.
Reynolds, G. (2016, October 5). A Single Concussion May Have Lasting Impact. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/05/well/move/a-single-concussion-may-have-lasting-impact.html
the effects of a single concussion may be less estimated in terms of its effects however a single concussion may have adverse effects on the mental health of the person who experiences this type of mental disturbance. This is fully supported by this article by Reynolds. This article explains how statistics show that the numbers of those affected by concussions have increased especially among those of the age below 20 years old and this applies mostly to the ladies and girls under this age. This increase happened majorly between 2010 to 2015 and it is a worrying one. Even though it might be considered worrying Reynolds still states that it may be a way forward towards a positive direction since it might be a realization that it is important and therefore it might have led many parents towards going for more diagnosis for their children and therefore the rise in number.
This article also states that if a person experienced more than one concussion when they were young it meant that it was more than a simple concussion but that the child may have a serious brain issue even if lying hidden. Trauma and other mental issues experienced by individuals as they grow up is also an important part of realizing that they may have had a concussion at one point in time and therefore this needs to be looked into closely and the people to be given the attention needed.
This is a very comprehensive article of the new york times and it gives us the ability to see concussions from a different perspective. This is because most people believe that a concussion is just a concussion and may not have adverse effects on someone yet in a real sense they have adverse effects on someone and how they develop their mental abilities. Therefore it is of great significance when it comes to research about concussions.
CNN, J. H. (n.d.). These high school sports have the highest concussion rates. CNN. Retrieved April 1, 2021, from https://edition.cnn.com/2019/10/15/health/concussion-high-school-sports-study
In most American high schools we find that the students are very much involved in sports and into doing many physical exercises. Therefore it is also upon this rate of physical activity and exercises whereby we realize that most of the concussions occur in high schools according to CNN. This article reports research about concussions produced by Avinash Chandran in the university of north Carolina. She stated that the results concerned all the stakeholders including athletes, coaches, parents, and researchers. The information about concussions and their high prevalence in high schools, therefore, needs to be looked into and ways to limit or mitigate the issue put into place according to this article.
This article states that most of the concussions occur or happen during training, practice, and not during the real competition of games. Therefore more need and care is needed when people and the high schools are engaging and training for different sports. The legislation also is having a great and good impact in many states whereby laws concerning concussions and how the students can be protected more and being passed.
Therefore this is an important article when it comes to the statistics and how these concussions are so high in high schools. It serves as a great article and therefore can be utilized to a great extent in the study about concussions.
Concussions in Sports. (n.d.). Www.nationwidechildrens.org. Retrieved April 1, 2021, from https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/specialties/sports-medicine/sports-medicine-articles/concussions-in-sports-article#:~:text=Concussions%20are%20a%20surprisingly%20common%20occurrence%20in%20sports.
Football, hockey, and soccer are the most common sports whereby students suffer concussions according to this article. A student may suffer a concussion be unable to diagnose it as a concussion since most concussions are soft and students may develop a headache as a result and in the process, they only realize that it is a headache and nothing more, however with time it is possible for such kind of mental distress to be a symptom of concussion. Most of these concussions are caused by sports in high schools and they are an important part of the school as they form part and parcel of the high school experience. However, this is a negative experience and therefore it needs to be rooted out. This is being done through legislation, more practice of safer methods, and other ways to make sure that concussions do not continue to take place.
After a concussion, it is highly recommended that immediate action and diagnosis be done to determine the extent of the injury and therefore advice on the best medication which if possible should also be administered immediately. The best assessment to be done for concussions is the neuropsychological assessment. There are rules and laws to end this and concussions are generally evaluated according to their level of severity.
Therefore this is a very important article of the research regarding concussions since it gives information on how concussions are dealt with as well as the basic information like what a concussion is. Therefore it can be of great importance and help in the research about concussions.
Works cited
CNN, J. H. (n.d.). These high school sports have the highest concussion rates. CNN. Retrieved April 1, 2021, from https://edition.cnn.com/2019/10/15/health/concussion-high-school-sports-study
Concussions in Sports. (n.d.). Www.nationwidechildrens.org. Retrieved April 1, 2021, from https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/specialties/sports-medicine/sports-medicine-articles/concussions-in-sports-article#:~:text=Concussions%20are%20a%20surprisingly%20common%20occurrence%20in%20sports.
Giza, C. C., Prins, M. L., & Hovda, D. A. (2017). It’s not all fun and games: sports, concussions, and neuroscience. Neuron, 94(6), 1051-1055.
Piazza, S. (2014). Why is it so hard to stop sports concussions?. American Scientist, 102(5), 346-349.
Reynolds, G. (2016, October 5). A Single Concussion May Have Lasting Impact. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/05/well/move/a-single-concussion-may-have-lasting-impact.html
Underwood, J. (2016). Under the Law: Schools should heed concerns over sports’ brain injuries. Phi Delta Kappan, 97(6), 74-75.
Database Design Models And Database Management Systems
Database Design Models And Database Management Systems
Contents
TOC o “1-3” h z u Introduction PAGEREF _Toc378047433 h 0Differences between DBMS PAGEREF _Toc378047434 h 0Differences between Database Design Models DBMS PAGEREF _Toc378047435 h 3Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc378047436 h 4
IntroductionA database management systems (DBMS) refers to a collection of programs that enable users to store, extract and modify data from a database (Kruk et al, 1996). On the other hand, a database design model refers to a plan describing objects represented by a computer system together with their relationships and properties. It describes real world objects such as orders, customers, suppliers, employees and products. This paper identifies three types of database management systems, describes them and compares and contrasts them. As well, it examines similarities and differences between database design models and DBMS.
Differences between DBMSDBMS Description Comparison
Microsoft Access This is a DBMS that combines graphical user interface with relational Microsoft jet database engine. It stores data based on the Access Jet Database Engine (Davidson, 2001). As well, it directly imports data that is stored in other databases or applications. As Davidson (2001) explains, this system facilitates storage and retrieval of data from computer’s hard drive. It is used for data sharing, long-term data storage and data manipulation and collection. According to Davidson (2001), users of Microsoft access systems can create reports, forms, queries and tables and connect them with micro. Microsoft access is easy to use in comparison with other systems. According to Davidson (2001), it can handle large number of records compared to the other systems. However, it is slow in performance compared to SQL Server system (Rhine, 1996). Like the other DBMS, Microsoft access allows access to a database by more than one user. However, it does not operate well when a database e is accessed by more than five persons, unlike SQL Server and client-server systems (Rhine, 1996).
Also, Microsoft Access has no ability to implement stored procedures, transaction logging and database triggers, like the Client-server relational DBMS do (Rhine, 1996). Unlike the other two servers, the latest version of Microsoft Access system stored procedures and table-level triggers that are built into ACE data engine. Also, Access is able to build reports, forms, queries, tables and Macros from the web, unlike Microsoft SQL Server and Client-server relational DBMS (Rhine, 1996).
Microsoft (structured query language) SQL Server system This is a relational DBMS developed by Microsoft, whose main function is to store and retrieve data on the same computer or others across a network (Stonebraker, 2010). Its scope includes schema creation and modification, query, data insert, update and delete and data access control. It is also used to create enterprise, web-based and desktop database applications. According to Stonebraker (2010), this system can be used together with Microsoft access as an alternative to jet database engine. It is compatible with Microsoft Access to the extent that SQL statements can be used directly in Micro to manipulate access tables and queries from Access can be edited as SQL statements (Stonebraker, 2010). It is used to store and retrieve data in computer systems, just like Microsoft Access (Rhine, 1996). It is also based on relational database model, just like Microsoft Access and Client-server relational database management systems (Rhine, 1996). It is also similar to Client-server and SQL Server systems in that it allows many clients to use the same server at the same time. However, it is not as easier to use and may not be able to handle large Microsoft Access and large number of data compared to access (Rhine, 1996).
Client-server relational DBMS This system is developed based on client-server models and is used in partitioning workloads or tasks between providers of service or resource, known as servers and service requesters, known as clients (Roesch & Henry, 1997). It enables clients to communicate with servers over the same computer but on different hardware. Also, it allows a server and a client to reside in the same system. A server hosts clients and runs one or more programs. A client using this system does not share any of its resources but requests service function or server’s content (Roesch & Henry, 1997). Thus, servers await incoming requests from clients. Both the server and the client exchange information in a request-response messaging pattern. A computer may be a server, a client or both and can serve multiple roles. For instance, one computer may run file server software and web server at the same time to relay different types of information requested by clients (Roesch & Henry, 1997). This system is similarly to Microsoft Access and Microsoft SQL Server system in that it is based on relational database management model (Rhine, 1996).. Unlike the above two systems, this system implements transaction logging, stored procedures and database triggers. As well, it is more difficult to use and handles less amount of data in comparison with Microsoft Access (Rhine, 1996).
Differences between Database Design Models DBMSOne similarity between database a design model and a DBMS is that both contain a schema containing a description of information within a database (Kruk et al, 1996). Secondly, both use tables or diagrams to describe information within a database. Third, both describe set of program modules which carry out functions such as data validating and selection. Further, Kruk et al (1996) explain that both may range from predefined features that are completely rigid to flexible. In addition, they are all developed to meet predefined requirements of commercial organizations. As well, both describe a way in which many users can access or use information in a database at the same time (Kruk et al, 1996). Lastly, both are developed based on specific business rules, depending on how activities are carried out within a particular organization.
However, there are also several differences between databases design models and DBMS. To start with, a DBMS is software that is designed to store, manipulate, retrieve and query information within a database. On the other hand, a database design model is simply a plan which is used as a reference for developing a database system (Kruk et al, 1996). Unlike in a DBMS, entity types in a database design model are often not identified or are incorrectly identified. This often leads to replication of information, functionality and data structure in a database design model, a feature that is not present in a DBMS (Kruk et al, 1996). In a database design model, data cannot be shared electronically with users such as employees, suppliers and customers since its meaning and structure has been standardized. On the contrary, a DBMS facilitates sharing of data among users since there are defined standards to ensure than information meets business needs (Kruk et al, 1996).
ConclusionIn conclusion, there are many DBMS with distinct properties and applications. Examples of common DBMS are Microsoft Access, client-server relational DBMS and Microsoft SQL Server system, as noted in the paper. The paper has also examined the differences between database design models and DBMS. In general, a database design model can be described as a plan that is used as a reference for developing a database system while a DBMS is software designed to manage information within a database.
References
Davidson, B. H, (2001), Database driven, dynamic content delivery: providing and managingaccess to online resources using Microsoft Access and Active Server Pages, OCLC Systems & Services, 17(1), pp. 34 – 42Kruk, A. Westerland, T. & Peter, K. (1996). Database Management Systems: Linking up acompany’s communications, both external and internal, Engineering Journal 103(5), p. 82Rhine, L. (1996), The development of a journal evaluation database using Microsoft ACCESS,Serials Review, 1996, 22 (4), pp. 27 – 34Roesch L. & Henry, L. J. (1997), Client/server systems. The Internal Auditor. 54(4), p. 40Stonebraker, M, (2010), SQL databases v. NoSQL databases, Communications of the ACM,53(4), pp. 10 – 11