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Essay on Consumer Decision Making and Behaviour
Introduction
In the past, purchasing of expensive items was seen as a kind of extravagant consumption behaviour. In fact, buying of such goods was the patents of individuals holding top leadership positions in a society, (Budiman & O’Cass (2007). However, in the modern world, this perception no longer holds, owing to changes in social and consumption values. Further, with the formation of emerging market in the globally, changes in consumer behaviours and extension of luxurious product market, the industry for luxurious goods is taking an important role in the global market. As Budiman & O’Cass explains, some individuals place emphasis on acquisition and possession of material goods as a sign of one’s success and status, a trend which is known as materialism. In the contemporary world, materialism is largely perceived as a value which can be decomposed further into possession values. Studies indicate that materialism does not only influence individual consumption behaviours, it also affects influences the global spread of consumption of different products types or brands (Budiman & O’Cass (2007).
Apart from materialism, consumption choice also is influenced by the existing differences in religious beliefs, norms and institutions existing in different segments in the global society, (Delener, 1990). Indeed, religion shapes the cultural values held by a people and this influences personal evaluation criteria for goods and services. Specifically, differences in religious beliefs and affiliations tend to influence the way individuals live, the choices that they make and what they consume. In this regard, religion also influences the global spread of consumption of different products types or brands. In view of these points, this paper examines the role of materialism and religion in the spread of global consumption or brands. Specifically, the paper explains how each of the two concepts (materialism and religion) may help or hinder the spread of a global consumption culture.
The role of materialism on spread of global consumption
Materialism is a many-sided concept which relates to the importance of material objects to an individual (Han et al, 2010). Bernard (2009) defines materialism as “a mind-set or constellation of attitudes regarding the relative importance of acquisition and possession of objects in one’s life.” Within this understanding, materialism is conceptualised as a system of individual values, rather than a personal trait. Bernard further explains that an individual who is status conscious and whose possessions and acquisitions occupy the central role in his or her life is termed as materialistic individual. Individuals with this attribute value activities that focus on acquiring and possessing material objects since they indicate success and provide happiness to them. To be more precise, materialistic individuals pursue their happiness through acquisitions rather than through other means such as achievements and personal relationships, and this distinguish materialists.
According to Hernan et al (2011), materialistic individuals value products which are consumed publicly and which possess public meaning, rather than personal, private and subjective meanings. A good example of a product that essentially fulfils this criterion is fashion clothing. Fashion clothing (apparel) is a brand that possesses public meaning and which is consumed publicly, (Sangkhawasi & Johri, 2007). Purchasing apparel satisfies various needs including such as giving individuals a way to impress others, enhancement of one’s image and expression of identity. To materialists, satisfaction is achieved through purchasing a high profile branded of and highly priced apparel. It is widely understood that the profile brand of apparel that one purchases covey’s a strong message to the world of who a person is. Thus, there is a strong link between materialism and consumption of luxurious or status brands. This is illustrated by a study conducted by Sahdev & Gautama (2007) seeking to investigate the psychological motivator and behavioral impacts of status consumption. The finding of this study showed that the higher the level of individual’s materialism the more they consumed luxurious or status products. Thus, an individual’s level of materialism influences the brands or product types they seek and hence influences the spread of consumption of status products.
However, as O’Cass and Julian (2001) explain, materialistic tendencies defer among individuals globally depending on various factors such as age, gender and nationality. For instance, Sangkhawasi & Johri (2007) conducted a study to investigate whether materialistic tendencies defer between male and females and the subsequent impact to the purchase of apparel. This study found that there is a difference between males and females tendencies to purchases apparel. The findings of this research found that there is significant difference between materialistic tendencies based on gender, with male being more materialistic.
Sangkhawasi & Johri (2007) also conducted a study among Indians and non-Indians on their preference for Designer Rohit Bal scale, a brand which is primarily purchased for its image. The study found that Non-Indian consider Designer Rohit Bal scale to be an image brand more that Indians do. The researcher learnt that most non-Indians understood the Designer Rohit Bal scale collection as a symbol of success in the society, (Sangkhawasi & Johri, 2007). The study found that as a result, this brand is purchased more in other countries other than India. This implies that there is a link between materialistic perception and brand image among different segments in the global society, (Shukla, 2010). If the materialistic tendency is high in relation to a given brand, it is purchased more. The higher the price of the product, the more the product is purchased in such a society.
However, if materialistic tendency in regard to a brand is low among individuals in a given segment of the society, the product is purchased less, especially if it is highly priced, (Shukla, 2010; O’Cass, 2004). Having realized this, marketers focus on establishing the existing linkage between materialistic perception and brand image for items that are deemed luxurious by the targeted group of consumers, (Sangkhawasi & Johri, 2007). Once this is achieved, organizations change brand image based on these perceptions or take the brand to consumers who have higher preferences for the products. This explains the differences in global consumption and spread of brands in different segments of the global society.
The role of religion on spread of global consumption
Religious beliefs play significant role in influencing consumer behaviour. According to Fam et al (2002), religious affiliations of different groups in the world such as Protestants, Catholics and Jews shape their attitudes towards political ideas, dancing and magazines, restaurants. Similarly, there is strong relationship between religious individuals and greater concerns for moral standards, being conservative and possessing more traditional attitudes towards consumption. To be more specific, religion determines individual’s morals and values and influences consumer attitudes towards particular item or services. In some cases, the influence of religion on consumption relates to restriction of certain items, foods, beverages or even advertisements of certain products or events, which are deemed to be controversial, (Muhamad & Mizerski, 2010). For example, in Asia, advertisement of funeral services is seen as distasteful, (odoshen and Zhang, 2011). This is understood as an act of disrespect towards elders and thus, in opposition to all religious teachings in the region.
However, in some western nations, purchasing a funeral services plan for an elder who is alive is seen as a good deed from a son to the parents, (Fam et al 2004). Thus, making such an advertisement is of outmost importance. In fact, they look for the most appropriate and efficient media. For example, in New Zeeland, advertisement for funeral services is done primarily via letterbox drops, radios and in local community newspapers. Usually, such advertisements are done at a prime time, between 8 a.m. and 10 a.m. via the radio stations. Such choice of time and media would not go on well in Taiwan (Buddhism followers) and in China where the majority of them are Taoism and Confucian followers, where death is seen s a bad omen. The followers in these countries would also not like to be bombarded with such advertisements early in the morning since they believe that this would bring misfortunes to them during the rest of the day (Fam et al 2004).
Fam et al (2004) notes that “in Taiwan and Malaysia (mainly among the Chinese), where the deceased is often bestowed with elaborate funeral rites, the use of mass media to advertise such a service will not bode well, as potential buyers will want to keep such a purchase discreet.” On the other hand, in the same societies, advertising and even taking of alcohol is not restricted. For instance, taking of alcohol is usually part of the cerebrations when marking the beginning of new of Chinese calendar (also known as the spring festival). In Malaysia, promotion techniques include giving free samples to the public, (Gupta, 2011). In contrast, in societies where Islam is the main faith such as in Saudi Arabia, taking alcohol or even making advertisement is totally banned and restricted, (Cherrier, 2009; Muhamad & Mizerski, 2010). Among some Christian believers and non-believers, alcohol is allowed if taken in moderation. Others such as Protestants strictly prohibit alcohol consumption among the followers. Further, Scheetz et al (2007) note that Islamic communities do not Jews do not eat pork just like Hindus do not eat beef.
Other products whose consumption is affected by religion are sex-related products such as condoms and female contraceptives (O’Cass, 2004). As FAM et al (2004) noted, religious values concerning the modesty and offensive nature of products or items make it difficult to be consumed or even to be advertised in some segments of the society. For instance, the use of birth controls is highly opposed by the Roman Catholics. They believe that use of birth controls hinder reproduction and encourage sinful acts. The majority of Protestants on the other hand support the use of contraception and even promote family planning as and important moral good. In Islam, there is nothing that condemns the use of birth controls. On the contrary, it is widely believed that the use of contraception helps to preserve the quality of the family and economics at family level. In response to this, producing industries concentrate more in promoting and selling contraceptives in the regions where religions endorse their use. This explains the fact that in the countries concentrated with Roman Catholics such as Italy, consumption of contraceptives may be very low, (Fam et al (2004). In contrast, in Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia, consumption of contraceptives is high. Thus, similarly to materialism, if a religion considers a given product or brand to be controversial, the product is consumed less or totally not consumed by the followers. On the other hand, if a religion embraces a product, it is consumed more. Generally this explains the fact that religion affects the spread of global consumption of specific products
Conclusion
In conclusion, materialism connotes the trend of placing emphasis on acquisition and possession of material goods as a sign of one’s success and status. An individual who is status conscious and whose possessions and acquisitions occupy the central role in his or her life is termed as materialistic individual. Thus, materialism influences personal values in relation to consumption of particular product or service. Similarly, religion religious beliefs, norms and institutions in different segments in the global society influence consumption behaviours. The existing differences in religious beliefs and affiliations tend to influence the way individuals live, the choices that they make and what they consume. As this essay demonstrates, both materialism and religion play a considerable role in influencing the spread of global consumption or brands. If the overall materialistic tendencies or religious beliefs favour a given brand or product, it is purchased more. However, if materialistic tendencies or religious perceptions among individuals in a given segment of the society fail to favour a brand or product, the product is purchased less, especially if it is highly priced. Having realized this, marketers globally focus on establishing the existing linkage between materialistic and religious perceptions and brand image held by the targeted consumers (Sangkhawasi & Johri, 2007). Once this is achieved, organizations change brand image based on these perceptions or focus on the market in which the brands are not rejected. This explains the differences that exist in global consumption and spread of brands among different segments of the global society.
References
Bernard, R. J., (2009), The Effects of Materialism, Brand Image, and Ad Appeal Type on Ad
Based Persuasion, retrieved from, http://www.csulb.edu/colleges/cba/honors/thesis/documents/RonaldBernardThesis.pdf
Budiman, A. & O’Cass, A., (2007), Studying the Effects of Materialism, Religiosity and Status
Consumption on Subjective Well-Being: An Indonesian Perspective, retrieved from, http://conferences.anzmac.org/ANZMAC2007/papers/Arief_1.pdf
Cherrier, H., Rahman, K., Mady T & Lee, D., (2009), The Globalizing Arab World:
Impacts on Csonsumers’ Level of Materialism and Vanity, retrieved from, http://wbiconpro.com/9%5B1%5D.-Helen-Dubai.pdfs
Delener, N., (1990) The Effects of Religious Factors on Perceived Risk in Durable Goods
Purchase Decisions, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 7 (3), pp.27 – 38
Fam, K. S., Waller D., S. & Erdogan, B. Z, (2004), The influence of religion on attitudes towards
the advertising of controversial products European Journal of Marketing, 38 (5/6), pp. 537-555
Gupta, N., (2011), Globalization does lead to change in consumer behavior: An empirical
evidence of impact of globalization on changing materialistic values in Indian consumers and its aftereffects, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics 23 (3), pp. 251-269,
Han, Y. J, Nunes, J. C. & Drèze, X., (2010), Signaling Status with Luxury Goods: The Role of
Brand Prominence, retrieved from, https://msbfile03.usc.edu/digitalmeasures/jnunes/intellcont/Brand%20Prominence%201-12-10-1.pdf
Hernan E. Riquelme, Rosa E. Rios, Nadia Al-Sharhan, (2011) Antecedents of ostentatious
consumption in Kuwait, Journal of Islamic Marketing, 2 (3), pp.295 – 308s
Muhamad, N. & Mizerski, D., (2010) The constructs mediating religions’ influence on buyers
and consumers, Journal of Islamic Marketing, Vol. 1 Iss: 2, pp.124 – 135s
odoshen, J. S., Li, L. and Zhang, J. (2011), Materialism and conspicuous consumption in China:
a cross-cultural examination, International Journal of Consumer Studies, 35: 17–25.
O’Cass, A., (2004) Fashion clothing consumption: antecedents and consequences of fashion
clothing involvement, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 38 Iss: 7, pp.869 – 882
O’Cass, A. & Julian, C. C., (‘2001), Fashion clothing consumption: studying the effects of
materialistic values, self-image/product-image congruency relationships, gender and age on fashion clothing involvement’, in S Chetty & B Collins (eds), Bridging Marketing Theory and Practice: Proceedings of the Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy (ANZMAC) Conference, Auckland, New Zealand, 1-5 December, Massey University Press, Auckland, New Zealand.
Sangkhawasi, T & Johri, L. M., (2007), Impact of status brand strategy on materialism in
Thailand, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 24 (5), pp.275 – 282
Sahdev A. & Gautama, P., (2007), Are Consumer Perceptions of Brand affected by
Materialism?, Consumer Markets & Marketing, Balewadi: NIA PO
Scheetz , T. K, Dubin & R. A. &. Garbarino E. C., (2007), A Modern Investigation of Status
Consumption, retrieved from, http://www.case.edu/artsci/dean/elf/documents/scheetzreport.pdf
Shukla, P., (2010) Status consumption in cross-national context: Socio-psychological, brand
and situational antecedents, International Marketing Review, 27 (1), pp.108 – 129
Essay- Free Health Care
(Name)
(Instructors’ name)
(Course)
(Date)
Free Health Care
If I could change one thing about my nation, I would free health care and other health related services. This is because I believe that good health is a human right like the right to vote and free thought. Free health care is not something that should be demanded, and instead it should be provided with minimal objections (Joseph 1). Accordingly, the issue of freeing health care has been the center of debates in academic, medical, and political circles. Whereas most people support the provision of free health care, others believe that health care services are economically demanding and for that reason need to be paid for. Before proceeding in support of this argument, it is crucial that the opponents’ views are examined so as to provide a clear and concise counter argument.
Opponents of this idea may argue that freeing healthcare is not a viable decision especially in relation to the costs incurred and organizational competition. Additionally opponents may also argue that the quality of health care will be compromised as a result of freeing health care (Gwatkins 13). With the increasing population numbers especially in the US, and the current recession that has seen plenty of people losing access to a stable income, I believe that freeing healthcare will assist citizens in their daily lives. It is estimated that the USA is home to over 46 million individuals, most of whom come from average and low income backgrounds. Freeing health care will enable families that could not afford health care services have the ability to attain these services with ease (Joseph 6). Most state citizens attain health care services through their organizations of employment, with those who are not employed being forced to cover for their health care expenses.
Accordingly, freeing health care services will help reduce the burden related to high expenses for businesses and individuals. This would in turn assure individuals of more savings which will be translated to better lives. Freeing health care will demand the establishment of a federal medical database, which will sequentially make the diagnosis and treatment process easier for doctors (Gwatkins 15). Accordingly, this will guarantee that patients receive proper treatment for their ailments unlike the opponents’ beliefs that freeing health care will reduce the quality of health care services that patients will receive. All patients will have their medical data stored in the central database, making it easy for them to access medical services from any medical facility with ease (Messerli 1). Additionally, freeing medical services will also encourage patients to engage in preventative health care treatment. Notably, most people prefer making a visit to their doctors and health care providers after a health problem has persisted. This, therefore, means that the illness has progressed into the later stages, hence has become serious and detrimental to the patient. Because some diseases such as cancer become worse at the later stages, the possibility of death is higher the more the disease remains untreated.
With access to free health care, patients can take advantage of these services to look for treatment in the early stages of sickness. This will, in turn, assure the detection of health problems early hence better health for all (Gwatkins 19). Freeing health care services will also allow medical practitioners to focus on treating patients, as opposed to, matters related to insurance and malpractice liability. Most medical practitioners today have been accused of putting more emphasis on matters that are related to payment instead of the healing process for patients. Doctors and medical professionals have been accused of being money oriented, which has in turn affected their performance.
Sequentially, patients end up being misdiagnosed, with others facing possible mortality because their respective medical attendants are too focused on payment rather than healing (Joseph 14). Some severe cases of this occurrence have seen patients die before admission just because they could not afford the admission fees or medical fees to cover other services. Conclusively, freeing health care will also eliminate all improvident inefficiencies related to paper work and medical recording including duplicate paper work, and insurance submission among other things (Messerli 1). This also eases hospital procedures, especially in relation to retrieving patient medical records. Freeing health care reduces the amount of manual paper work in hospitals, which saves time and assures patient of quick treatment during and after hospital admission.
Irrespective of the various criticisms regarding the provision of free health care, I believe that freeing health care is the next step to better living for individuals in society today. All governments and nations focus their national strategies and activities towards national growth and development. However, this growth and development cannot be attained without human labor and productivity. To assure all nations of this productivity and input, governments should, therefore, consider the possibility of providing free health care for its citizens. Free health care will ensure that every member of society is health and fit to work towards the country’s growth and development growth (Joseph 21). I, therefore, believe that all health care services should be freed, to ensure access by all individuals.
Work Cited
Gwatkin, Davidson R. Are Free Government Health Services The Best Way To Reach The Poor?
HNP Discussion Paper, 2004. Print.
Joseph P. Newhouse and the Insurance Experiment Group. Free for All? Lessons from the RAND
Health Experiment. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993. Print.
Messerli, Joe. Should the Government Provide Free Universal Health Care for All Americans?
balancedpolitics.org, 6 November 2011. Web. 10 November 2011.
Essay Examples on contract law
Essay Examples
Topic: contract law
The issue of case is Tom hires some massage chairs form Jack. Later, Tom plan to cancel it, but Jack still wants continue this contract. Thus, Tom suggests that reduce the rent from $500 to $250 and Jack accepted. However, after seven months Jack writes a letter to Tom request the rest of the rent for the past six months. The question is that Tom has to pay the rent.
Jack did accepted the reduction by Tom, so it should be a promissory estoppels. It means if one party to a contract, by its behavior, leads the others enter to the contract to believe some terms that this exists between them. The court will support that state of situation rather than the terms of the contract.
The following is five preconditions for promissory estoppels:
Plaintiff Promise not to enforce
According to the case, the promise was from the original rent $500 reduce to $250 and this offer was form Jack. Lastly, Tom accepted the offer and continue with the contract.
Plaintiff intends defendant to rely on it
Tom planed to cancel the contract with Jack. However, Jack offered half price to him, so Tom just continue the contract. Blazely v Whiley (1995) 5 Tas R 254 is similar situation. The defendant trust the plaintiff that they can get the cheaper offer for purchasing the house, if they paid the plaintiff’s mortgage plus and rent. As this offer, the defendant paid the money, but the plaintiff was estopped form the original agreement.
Defendant’s reliance
Tom did trust Jack’s offer and paid only $250 for last six months. Similarly, Giumelli v Giumelli (1999) 196 CLR 101 is the plaintiff that is failed to honour a promise. The judge decided that because of parents’ failed to honour a promise, so the defendant was able to rely on promissory doctrine. Applying to this case, Tom also can rely on the promise that Jack made, because he failed to honoour a promise.
Defendant’s detriment
Refer to the case, Tom’s hotel had high vacancy, so if it is not half price, he is not able to bear this cost. If he needed to pay the full amount, he will not continue the contract with Jack.
Unjust enrichment of plaintiff
It is unjust that Jack can get back the money for last six months. The reason is Jack already promised to Tom that the rent is going to reduce, so there is unfair situation.
Central London Property Trust v High tree House Ltd [1974] 1KB 130 is same circumstances as this case. The defendant was paying 2500 pounds per month, however defendant wanted to cancel the contract. Yet, plaintiff offered half price to defendant which is 1250 pounds per month and both of them have agreement. Same situation as this case, the plaintiff wanted to get back last few months money. The result is the High court decided that plaintiff is not going to success, because it was a promise for future intention and not for the present and past factor. Moreover, the promise was the intention to lead defendant to into a lease.
In conclusion, Tom does not need to pay back last six months rents according to the evidence. It is the promissory estoppels. However, Jack can request Tom that starts to pay the full amount $500 per month from now. It is because Jack is not able to request for the past, however he has the ability to change the existing contract. It also needs to depend Tom accept the offer or not.
Reference Case
Blazely v Whiley (1995) 5 Tas R 254
Central London Property Trust v High tree House Ltd [1974] 1KB 130
Giumelli v Giumelli (1999) 196 CLR 101
Topic: Civil law
Issue: Does Chelsea owe a duty of care?
Does Graham owe a duty of care?
Does Harry owe a duty of care?
Analysis:
Does Chelsea owe a duty of care?
Yes, she does owe duty of care. The reason is as the owner of restaurant, she should ensure the food is safe and health for serving customers. According to the case, the restaurant is aim to service specific catering for people with diet concerns and chemical allergies. Thus, if the food goes wrong, it is foreseeable as the restaurant operator. Chelsea as occupier, so she owes the occupier negligence liabilities.
Does Graham owe a duty of care?
Graham as a fish wholesaler, he must understand what kind of fish and salt that Chelsea needs and wants. As he used the wrong kind of salt, it cause people sick and damage of the cafe reputation. As the result, he definitely owes a duty of care and the issue is foreseeable.
Breach of the duty of care:
Reasonable person in same circumstance
Graham as a fish wholesaler, he is able to foresee the issue, if he is using wrong salt. He is a reasonable person to ensure all the food that he supplied should be safe.
Likelihood, Foresseabilty of Harm
As the aim of the restaurant, that is providing special catering for allergic and diet concerns people. Thus, the risk of hurting people is really high, if they using wrong food.
Seriousness of Harm
In the case, because of the wrongly salted fish, many customers have to go to hospital and some of them need to stay in hospital for few months. That is really serious issue and it is possible to cause people die as the reacting of allergic. For example, Rogers v Whitaker (1992) 175 CLR 479, Maree Whitaker successfully sued Christopher Rogers as an ophthalmic surgeon. The reason is because of his failure that cause her eye nearly blind, and this cause serious consequences for her.
Burden of Precautions
If the food controlling is careless, the result will be same as the case and it is foreseeable. However, Graham as the fish wholesaler did not take the responsible to ensure the food that provide to restaurant is on the standard.
Social Utility
The food should be safe and with special diet concern or allergic required, because the restaurant is providing specific catering.
As Graham’s negligence action, it caused the reputation damage of restaurant and customers’ health. The damages are going to continue influence to the restaurant. This Lord Denning said in Cork v Kirby McLean Ltd (1952) 2 ALL ER 402 at 407: if the damage happened because of the fault, then that fault is in fact cause the damage. Thus, as this case, Graham used the wrong salt, then the damage happened. As the result, the damage is relied on Graham in this case.
Does Harry owes a duty of care?
Harry, who is a professional fish marketer, engages with Chelsea to ensure the mistake is not going to happen and he advised to use “Fish South America”. Moreover, Harry give suggestion to Chelsea about the supplier and products. However, Harry did not mention other chemical added within the product to Chelsea, so the disaster happened again. As the result, he must owes a duty of care.
Similar Graham part, as a professional fish marketer, he should able to foresee the issue happen if they added some other chemical to the fish. It is a huge risk to the restaurant, because the aim of it is providing special catering to people who has allergic and diet concern. Using wrong food to the restaurant is happened before, and this time also cause people sick and restaurant’s reputation drop. In some case, people may die with over reaction of allergic, thus as a professional fish marketer, he should notices this.
In this case, Harry owes a negligent misstatement. The reason is he advice that Chelsea purchase fish through “Fish South America” and ensure nothing will go wrong. Furthermore, he is a professional person and Chelsea did explain the aim of the restaurant. Thus, Harry must understand the special requires from Chelsea. It is likely plaintiff would have damage of business due to the defendant proves wrong information, that the case is Esanda Finance Corporation Ltd v Peat Marwick Hungerfords (1997) 188 CLR 24. Applying this to the case, Harry as a professional marketer, he must have enough knowledge of fish product. However, he provides wrong information to Chelsea and it causes lots of damage to the business and herself.
In conclusion, Chelsea owes a duty of care as the owner of the restaurant. Consumers are able to sue her as providing failed product. Moreover, Graham owes a duty of care. As the fish wholesaler, he used the wrong salt even he understand the special require of the business. It is a negligence action and causes huge damages for customers and the restaurants. Thus, Chelsea as the owner and customers are possible that request compensate. On the other hand, Harry as the professional marketer, but he provides the wrong information to Chelsea. It is a negligence misstatement. In this part, Harry owes the duty of care to Chelsea and consumers.
Reference case
Cork v Kirby McLean Ltd (1952) 2 ALL ER 402 at 407
Esanda Finance Corporation Ltd v Peat Marwick Hungerfords (1997) 188 CLR 24
Rogers v Whitaker (1992) 175 CLR 479