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Epidemiology of Malaria, Modes of Transmission of Malaria
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Epidemiology of Malaria: Modes of Transmission of Malaria:
Human malaria is transmitted by the female anopheles mosquito. 60 species of this mosquito have been identified as the vector for malaria. The transmission is through a bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. The mosquito mostly bites during dust and dawn hours. The mosquito becomes infected when it bites a patient with malaria infection. The mosquito sucks the gametocytes from the infected person. The gametocytes proceed with their sexual cycle and the sporozoites occupy the salivary glands of the infected mosquito. After the infection, the mosquito still remains alive. When it bite bites human being for the blood meal, which it requires to nourish its eggs, it releases the sporozoites into the blood stream of human, thus transmitting the infection.
Other modes of transmission:
Blood transfusion (Transfusion malaria):
This is majorly common in endemic areas.-from the time of malaria infection; the donor may remain infective for many years.
Most infections of this nature occur when the transfusion of blood kept for less than six days. And very minimal in transfusion of blood kept for a period more than two weeks. Frozen plasma has not been known to transmit malaria.
Mother to the developing fetus: (Congenital malaria)
Intrauterine transmission of mother to the unborn child: the placenta becomes densely infested with the disease causing parasite. This mode of transmission is mostly common with the first pregnancy, in non-immune individuals.
Needles stick injury:
This type of transmission occurs accidentally among drug addicts who share needles and syringes.
Descriptive Epidemiology of Malaria:Eco-epidemiological Zones:
African Savannah malaria: (mesoendemic or holoendemic)
Fringe malaria (Africa): highland or desert seasonal unstable or periodic.
Valleys or Global plains: various breeding sites, various vectors site:
Malaria Treatment:
An early diagnosis and treatment of malaria can stop it from growing into a severe condition which can be fatal.
Mild malaria can be cared for within homes but the caregiver and the patient should be careful on the following:
The frequency and dosage of the medication.
Vomiting after medication needs more treatment.
Drugs used for the treatment of malaria:
Doxycycline-
Side effects-vomiting, abdominal pain, nausea
Avoid in use on pregnant mothers and children below 8 years.
Halofantrine-treats all 4 species of malaria
Side effects-diarrhoea, rash, itching, coughs Avoid taking with meals.
Treatment of severe malaria:
Treat convulsions with Diazepam
Give quinine intravenously
Treat anemia with ferrous phosphate (tablets):
Prevention of Malaria:
Chemoprophylaxis against Malaria:
A course of tablets given to migrants and travelers to prevent malaria when travelling from non endemic to endemic areas:
Personal Protection and Selective Vector Control Methods:
Use of insecticide-treated mosquito nets,
Personal protection measures –body repellents and coils
Insecticide spraying
Role of the health worker – early diagnosis.
Focal Nature of Malaria:
Urban conditions: transmission linked to focal breeding sites
Rural conditions: transmission linked with the proximity to breeding sites of mosquitoes.
River systems, stable water bodies, and rice paddies
Endemicity of Malaria:
• Holoendemic: transmission occurs all the year round.
• Hyperendemic: intense, but has spans of no transmission especially during dry season.
• Mesoendemic: seasonal but regular transmission
• Hypoendemic: highly intermittent transmission.
References:
Robert Sallares (2002). “Malaria and Rome: A History of Malaria in Ancient Italy”, New York, N.Y: Oxford University Press.
Frank M. Snowden (2005) .“Conquest of Malaria: Italy”, Yale University Press.
Randall M. Packard (2007) “Making of a Tropical Disease”, The Johns Hopkins University Press; Baltimore.
Epicureans, Augustine, Stoicism
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Epicureans, Augustine, Stoicism
Introduction
Human life is a complex conception that is characterized by various attributes. One of the most important aspects of this pertains to the ability to think and deduce meanings out of one’s life and experiences. Usually, these have different implications on the entire welfare of the human way of life because they influence fundamental believes and practices too. Most importantly, the characteristic spirituality and beliefs in the external forces that shape human life at different stages have significant implications. It is against this background that this paper provides an intrinsic analysis of the Epicurean perception of gods and death. In detail, it underscores the false beliefs about gods and how these distress humans. Also, it highlights the Epicurean perception with respect to why humans should not fear death and ascertains if these viewpoints constitute reasoning.
According to Melchert, the human fear of gods can be attributed to the societal cultural beliefs and superstitions that are formulated by humans (Melchert 277). Religion has been cited as one of the major sources of beliefs that contribute to this state of affairs. However, Epicureans belief that humans distress themselves by the false presumption that postulates that the gods are responsible for governing each and every aspect of human life. This fear stems from the fact that humans engage in evil activities in a bit to satisfy their material needs and the characteristic worldly ambitions. Epicurus indicated that men can only deliver themselves from these false presumptions if they employ rational thinking.
According to his philosophy, Epicurus indicated that unlike humans, gods have supernatural powers and lack physical atomic structures. Thus they exist within the gaps that are found in the universe. He ascertains that these gods do not have any power over the humans but instead lead quiet and happy lives. They essentially exist due to the fact that the entire human race believes in them. However, their existence should not frighten humanity because gods are not concerned with the human way of life. The relationship between the gods and humans is further compromised by the recognition that the former are immortal while the latter are mortal. The immortal nature of the gods is contributed to by the nature of atomic flow in their being that is balanced. Epicurus instead indicates that humans need to derive joy and peace from their contemplation of the actual existence f gods. However, gods are unlikely to approve or disapprove of any human behavior because they are immortal.
Death is another physical transformation that humans have been cited to be fearful of. Essentially, it refers to a state in which the atomic structures of both human souls and bodies dissolve (Melchert 284). Epicurus indicates that humans need not fear the death in any way because it does not have any adverse implications on their holistic welfare. Only then can humans be able to lead a happy and contended life. From the Epicurean point of view, death is an implication of the end of human existence. Humans in this respected are advised not to be worried or concerned about this state because it merely implies that humans would not have sensory experiences any more. A dead person in this regard is usually unaware of his or her surroundings.
In particular, Epicurus indicates that neither the living nor the dead need to worry about its existence because it does not affect any of them. Put differently, while the living do not experience it, the dead are also eliminated from this possibility because they do not exist and are not even aware of it (Melchert, 302). Although most humans tend to be terrified by the mention of the word death, they find solace in it because it provides a permanent escape to the worldly challenges that have severer implications on human welfare. In this regard, it is indicated that humans basically worry about death because of the false implications that have been perceived to characterize after life. However, this does not need to distress humans once they understand that death puts an end to their entire existence of human life.
At this point, it can be argued that this is not rational thought as it undermines the very existence of human life. It devalues the need to live and can have far reaching implications on social cohesion. In this respect, it is worth appreciated that spirituality is an imperative source of moral values and virtues that constrain human behavior. Elimination of characteristic external forces associated with it deprives human life of a meaning.
Conclusion
There are several forces that are employed by humans in shaping their way of life. From the preceding analysis, the fear of gods and death can be considered some of the forces that influence human behavior in different ways. Epicurean thoughts indicate that humans need not to fear gods because the latter do not concern themselves with the human way of life. They should neither fear death because it implies an end to existence and therefore there are no implications after life. From a practical point of view, this is irrational because it devalues human life and has the ability to significantly compromise social cohesion.
Works Cited
Melchert, Norman. The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. Oxford: University Press, 2006.
E-Participation LRCandy
Literature review
Extant literature has explored the factors affecting citizens’ usage of e-participation services. The work of Nam (2011) for instance, empirically investigated citizen’s attitude on open governments as well as government 2.0. His work indicated that the attitude of citizens could to large extent, be influenced by the various services that are both enabled as well as advanced application of new technologies in the implementation of government operations.
According to Nye et al., (1997) citizens may be affected by services that are offered via new technology offerings and implemented for government operations. Other empirical studies have explored the perception and attitude of citizens’ towards-government services in terms of values, trust and satisfaction. These studies have identified a big gap between the perceived government performance and public expectations (Peters, 2009). This underlines the need for actual government performance as the notion of performance only leads to heightened expectations among the citizens. Welch et al (2005) noted that the public perception-expectations gap could effectively lead to a reduction in the public trust in e-government services.
According to the work of Tolbert and Mossberger (2003), the manner in which citizens perceive their government appears abstract concerning conceptual validity as well as measurability. With a consideration of such a limitation, a series of prior studies have employed and developed quite effective strategies for quantifying or measuring citizens’ attitudes and perception towards e-participation. Tolbert and Mossberger (2003) further noted that empirical studies can be conducted n order to determine citizens’ view as well as used of e-government services. This is done by evaluating their perceptions, trust, efficacy, satisfaction and confidence. The authors also noted that while performing such studies, a lot of attention must be placed on socio-demographic to reveal the actual impact of e-participation on various segments of the entire population (Niehaves & Becker, 2008; West, 2004).
The work of Davis (1989) employed Technology Acceptance Model as a conceptual framework for use in conducting empirical investigations into people’s perception of usefulness of usefulness of e-government services. The actually aim was to investigate their perception of the value of e-government services. The influence of e-government or e-participation on their satisfactions is what has often been investigated (Kolsaker & Lee-Kelley, 2008). The works of Carter and Bélanger (2005) and Wangpipatwong et al., (2008) on the other hand investigated the effect of continuous engagement in e-participation on the attitude of users about adoption of e-participation services. On the contrary, the work of Alsaghier et al. (2009) investigated the opposite of e-participation’s perceived usefulness. They investigated the perceived risk of e-participation as well as the motivation for using such services. Wu and Chen (2005) however, carried out an empirical inquiry into trust issue as an important determinant of behavioral intention to engage in e-participations services. Their investigation concentrated on on-line tax return system and employed extension of the Trust and TAM model with TPB in the first-time adoption of on-line tax registration system.
A series of investigations revealed that frequent engagement in e-participation services has a great impact on citizens’ trust in government. It pretty much has similar effect on their attitudes and perceptions towards e-participation (Kolsaker & Lee-Kelley, 2008; Tolbert & Mossberger, 2003). These studies also indicated that technological factors must be considered when investigating the perception and attitude of citizens towards e-participation. The disparity in the extent of internet usage among the entire socio-demographic spectrum creates a great digital divide that in essence, is a fundamental source of impedance of citizens’ use and adoption of e-participation services. Digital divide is in this case a factor that can influence citizens’ attitude towards e-participation (Wu and Chen , 2005). Initial adoption of e-participation services is an important factor in the determination of their influence and future/continued usage.
More recently, Aladwani (2013) came up with an alternative model of citizens’ attitudes toward e-participation. In what he referred to as a contingency model, he explored the effects of demographics and quality characteristics of relationships on the connection existing between citizen attitudes towards e-participation. His work also evaluated the level of e-participation acceptance. His work employed statistical analyses of specific responses from 268 respondents in order to uncover several important findings. His study exposed the relationship between e-participation attitudes and frequency of visits and how these differed by gender and level of education. The level of trust in these e-participation services was noted to play a strong role in the moderation of relationship between the attitudes and total number of executed transactions.It is quite clear that several factors play a role in the determination of citizens’ attitude towards e-participations. These is exemplified in the work of Kolsaker and Lee-Kelley (2008). In their work, they investigated UK Citizens’ attitudes towards e-participation (e-governance and e-government). The findings indicated that while e-participation is quite low, citizens appreciate user-friendliness, personalization of the services as well as capacity to communicate. Users as well as non-users are indicated in their study to have moderate value in e-participation for communication and knowledge acquisitions and very little value of its democratic engagement.
It is important for e-participation adoption process to be smooth and seamless. The work of Shareef et al (2010) investigates the critical factors that allow citizens adopt e-participation services.They noted that
First, technology adoption model (TAM), theory of planned behavior (TPB) and diffusion of innovation theory (DOI) cannot be used to capture as well as specify the whole essence of e-participation adoption behaviors among citizens. Other than that, they revealed that e-participation adoption behavior differs by service maturity levels.
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