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Alexander Hamilton was one of the figures who played a major role in the politics in America during the past era
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Effects of Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr in modern times
Alexander Hamilton was one of the figures who played a major role in politics in America during the past era. He was appointed a secretary to the treasury and he used this position, to finance the newly formed American government, and have the ability to pay the debts it had, while also affirming the dominance over other states. This helped in instituting the very strong federal policies in America, in the current times. Hamilton being a lawyer, he worked for New York parliament, and was one of the people who attended the convention which took place in Philadelphia, in 1787, proposing the changing of Articles for a newly created constitution.
Following the approval of the constitution in America, Hamilton appointment as the secretary to the treasury, played a vital role in the government because of his wide knowledge in economics theory. He was one of the leaders in the Federal political party, who campaigned for a government with federal policies. To him, anarchy as experienced in France during the revolution was a perfect example of freedom that infringed on the rights of the people. He thought that if the American people were given an opportunity to express their idea of liberty freely, it would interfere with the benefits achieved by their revolution. His other assignment as a secretary in the treasury department obligated him to enhance the financial stability of the government. It was a complicated matter, because the government had enormous debts from the very first day the government came into force (Watson pg200).
The newly created constitution necessitated the government to pay the debts that had resulted from financing of the revolution war. At the same time, the articles in the confederation were not in a position to deal with the issue, so he came up with a policy that introduced indirect taxes. Custom duties were imposed on commodities, used by consumers like alcoholic’s drinks and beverages. He planned to increase the tax charged on alcoholic products, to increase the duty on alcoholic spirits imported, and at the same time, a new tax rate was charged on distilled spirits produced locally. Both proposals were agreed upon by the senate, and accepted by the president in the year 1791. The direct impact of this idea would be favorable for agricultural activities in the country. This is because the reduction in the consumption of spirits, would lead to use of malt liquors benefiting farmers in the country, as well as, opening up other creative sources of revenue.
It also brought into play the introduction of the idea of limitation, in the consumption of alcohol. This idea has been accepted and widely used by many countries including America. The advantages of the whole concept are it takes into consideration the health factor of the citizens in a county. This is because excessive use of alcohol is detrimental on an individual health. The concept happened to be used also when collecting federal levies, imposed on alcoholic drinks.
Hamilton came up with a proposal on how to fund the debts incurred by country, by establishing financial institutions such as the National bank, as he believed that the future of America, depended mostly on banks and the bond markets. The bank currently has many branches all over the world, and a financial institution that has helped a lot in raising the living standards of many people (Bennet pg 254).
Aaron Burr, another founding father of America, described as the one who started the present methods of campaigning in politics. He achieved this by asking for help from members of a social club called Tammany Hall in dictating the selection method for the delegates in the Electoral College. Many democratic countries have come up with electoral bodies to oversee elections in their countries. While serving in the military, he came up with a patrol coordination that led to enforcement of martial law that helped in instituting law, and order in the military service. Military services all over the world use it as a tool for propagating justice in that system.. As the president of the senate, he came up with ideologies that restored transparency in the judicial system. The office still follows some of his principles in delegating duties. He believed that women shared the same intellectual abilities as men. He hanged a picture of Mary Wollstonecraft over his own mantle. Burr daughter learnt how to dance, singing and many languages. She was also taught some skills like shooting while positioned at the back of the horse. This was an important development, as many ladies are now educated, and hold various influential positions in the American government and all over the world (Tootle pg156).
After his election as the third vice president of America, he advocated for women education. He came up with a bill that allowed women to vote, and is still applied in America. Burr was also instrumental in ending the slavery era in their country. At that time, he had two slaves but later set one of them free, as a result, for his efficient service during the revolution in America. Slavery is almost a thing of the past in many countries worldwide.
Work cited
BIBLIOGRAPHY l 1033 Bennet, William J. America:The Last Best Hope:From the Age of Discovery. New York: Thomas Nelson Inc, 2007.
Tootle, James R. Vintage Base Bal:Recapturing the National Pastimel. London: Mcfarland, 2011.
Watson, Alan D. General Benjamin Smith:A Biography of the North Carolina. New York: McFarland, 2011.
Alexander Fleming And Discovery of Penicillin
Alexander Fleming And Discovery of Penicillin
Alexander Fleming, a third born of four was born on 6th August, 1881 at a farm called Lochfield near Darvel in Ayrshire, Scotland. His father Hugh Fleming who lived from 1816 to 1888 was a farmer and was married to Grace Stirling Morton, a neighboring farmer’s daughter. Grace the mother of Fleming, lived between the years 1848 and 1928. At the death of Hugh Fleming, Alexander fondly known as Alec was seven years old. Fleming attended the Loudoun Moor School and the Darvel School where he rightfully earned a two years scholarship to Kilmarnock Academy (Macdonald, 2002). Later on he relocated to London and joined the Royal Polytechnic. At the age of twenty, and having worked in a shipping office for four consecutive years, Fleming was lucky to inherit some money from his uncle John Fleming. Tom, Fleming’s elder brother, being a physician greatly influenced his younger sibling’s decision to venture into a career in medicine. He consequently joined the St Mary’s Hospital Medical School in Paddington where he worked with zeal and zest and managed to graduate with a distinction degree in MBBS in the year 1906 (Macdonald, 2002).
From 1900, Alexander Fleming had been a clandestine in the London Scottish Regiment of the Volunteer Force. Being a dedicated member of the rifle club at St Mary’s Hospital Medical School, the club captain managed to persuade him to join the research department so that he could retain him in the club. His hard work ensued his appointed to being the assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in immunology and vaccine therapy. In 1908, Fleming managed to get a Bachelor of Science degree with Gold Medal in the field of Bacteriology and commenced to be a lecturer at St Mary’s for the next six years. Towards the end of 1915, he married Sarah Marion McElroy of Killala, County Mayo, Ireland who was a trained nurse (Macdonald, 2002). During the First World War, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps where he provided his services in battlefield field hospitals at the Western Front in France. However, in 1918, he went back to St Mary’s Hospital and his outstanding performance resulted to his election as a professor of Bacteriology of the University of London in 1928 (Maurois, 1959). Before his death on 11th March 1955, Fleming was a biologist, botanist and pharmacologist who wrote numerous articles on chemotherapy, bacteriology and immunology. His researches culminated in his discovery of enzyme lysozyme and the antibiotic matter penicillin from the mould penicillium notatum in the year 1928. This particular discovery led to his award of Noble Prize in Physiology together with Ernst Boris Chain and Howard Florey (Maurois, 1959).
During the First World War, Fleming was intrigued by the death of very many soldiers from sepsis which resulted from infected wounds. He realized that antiseptics killed most of his patients’ immunological defences much more efficiently than they did the attacking bacteria. This prompted him to embark on the search for anti-bacteria agents. From his own glass blowing skills, Fleming submitted a medical journal; The Lancet, during the war which described a resourceful experiment which elaborated on why antiseptics were killing most of the wounded soldiers than the infection itself. He explained that antiseptics were effective on the surface but deep wounds denied them access to the anaerobic bacteria. Instead, the antiseptics in this case removed the useful agents produced to protect the patient as effectively as they did the bacteria on the surface and left the out of reach bacteria to thrive. Despite Almroth Wright’s support however, physicians continued to use the antiseptics during the war (Maurois, 1959).
Fleming continued to investigate the characteristics of staphylococci and by 1927; he was a renowned researcher although his laboratory was always untidy. Upon returning to his laboratory from a family holiday in 1928, he realized that one culture of staphylococci left on the bench was infected with fungus and the surrounding colonies of staphylococci had been destroyed while the far away colonies were not affected. He then decided to grow mould in an unadulterated culture and noticed that it formed a substance that was able to kill several disease killing bacteria. Further research revealed that the substance came from the penicillium genus and therefore named it penicillin later on. Consequent investigations revealed that penicillin affected bacteria such as staphylococci among other Gram-positive pathogens that cause meningitis, scarlet fever, diphtheria and pneumonia. Penicillin however, had no substantial effect on typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever caused by Gram-negative bacteria whose cure was his main source of concern then (Eric, 2004).
Despite the fact that Fleming published his discovery in the British Journal of experimental pathology, minimal considerations were accorded to his findings. Nevertheless, he continued with his investigation but was hindered by the fact that growing penicillium was relatively a hard task and isolating the bacteria was equally cumbersome. These hindrances derailed his research and in fact led him to doubt the importance of penicillin in treating infections as its action seemed to be rather slow. He even doubted the period of time penicillium would last in the human body to effectively kill the bacteria (Eric, 2004). In 1940, he eventually abandoned penicillin but almost immediately, Ernst Boris Chain and Howard Florey embarked on mass production and research on it at the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford. The Pearl Harbor bombing prompted the British and U.S. governments to fund the two researchers in their endeavor so as to get adequate penicillin to treat the wounded soldiers in the Allied forces (Gladys, 1985).
Edward Abraham and Ernst Boris Chain in the quest to produce mass penicillin to treat the wounded soldiers came up with a viable method of isolating and concentrating it. In fact Abraham in Oxford and with liaison with the two researchers was able to discover the correct structure of penicillin. Norman Heatley, another member of the Oxford team proposed that the active ingredient of penicillin be put in water a second time by altering its acidity. This necessitated the production of adequate drug to commence testing it on animals. Many other researchers joined hands with the Oxford team to ensure the success of this research. Finally, the enlarged team was able to come up with methods of purifying penicillin to an efficient first stable form in 1940. This was followed by successive clinical trials which inspired them to advance the means and ways of producing and distributing penicillin in bulk in the year 1945 (Gladys, 1985). Although the success of this discovery involved many people, it was exclusively attributed to Alexander Fleming who was given the mandate of naming the drug.
Although accidental, Fleming’s discovery and isolation of penicillin in the year marked the commencement of the contemporary antibiotics. Previously, other scientists had written articles imploring that mould otherwise known as penicillium sp. had the potential to inhibit growth of bacteria and cure some bacterial infections. Although Ernest Duchesne in his thesis titled “Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes”, in 1897, and Clodomiro Picado Twight’s work at Institute Pasteur in 1923, sought to establish the effect of penicillin sp genre in the growth of staphylococci, it was Fleming who came up with the break through on the use of penicillin to treat infections. Other than the discovery of penicillin, Fleming also deduced that when penicillin was used in small quantities or for a short period of time, bacteria developed antibiotic resistance (Gladys, 1985). Fleming used the scientific method of isolating penicillin to come up with the most vital remedy of treating infections. Although he died of heart attack and was buried in St Paul’s Cathedral, London, Fleming’s contributions in the field of antibiotic have found wide applications in the modern world (Gladys, 1985). Presently, physicians are confidently able to treat both surface and deep wounds effectively by applying Fleming’s theories and discoveries.
References
Eric, L. (2004). The story of the penicillin miracle. New York: H. Holt
Gladys, H. (1985). Penicillin : meeting the challenge. New Haven: Yale University Press
Macdonald, F. (2002). Alexander Fleming. Oxford: Heinemann Library.
Maurois, A. (1959). The life of Sir Alexander Fleming, discoverer of penicillin. New York:
Dutton.
Habsburg Dynasty and The Thirty Years’ War
Habsburg Dynasty and The Thirty Years’ War
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Habsburg Dynasty and The Thirty Years’ War
The thirty years’ Wars was a series of wars in European history that involved numerous nations that conflicted due to various reasons which included dynastic, economic and territorial rivalries. Its campaigns and battles caused destruction all across Europe, and when the war came to an in 1648 after the Westphalia treaty, the map of Europe had been permanently altered (Galanter, 2005).
During this period, the Hapsburg dynasty still held a lot of power in Europe owing to their strategic marriages that ensured they overcame barriers including language. Between 1629 and 1635, the ascendancy of the Habsburg dynasty was challenged after their successful reassertion at the beginning of the 1620s. The challenge came from Sweden and France. Sweden felt the need to attack the Habsburgs because it did not agree with their support of its old enemy Poland. The Rift between Poland and Sweden had come after the Vasas had ousted the of age catholic family that continued to rule Poland.
Emperor Ferdinand III of the Habsburg dynasty found himself in the middle of the war with little support wavering Support from the German princes and was virtually on his own as he took France who had focused much of its personnel and resources to its operations in Southern Germany and Sweden. The war then dragged on for almost a decade stretching the resources and personnel of the Emperor to an extent that it became a major obstacle and Ferdinand III struggled with launching large-scale offenses. He was not able to exploit victories won in battles and only had time to recuperate during the war between Swede and Denmark between 1643 and 1645. Before this Swede Denmark war, the Imperial army had suffered a devastating defeat in the second battle of Breintenfeld.
The Imperial army then encountered a decisive defeat from the Swedes in March of 1645, which forced Emperor Ferdinand III to come to terms with his enemies. The support from his allies in Germany dwindled and he was forced to negotiate with Sweden and France and came to a series of agreements to in what came to be known as the Peace of Westphalia.
References
Galanter, M. (2005). The hundred-year decline of trials and the thirty years war. Stanford Law Review, 1255-1274.