Recent orders
African Traditional Wedding
Name
Professor
Course
Date
African Traditional WeddingAbstract
The African marriage rites are extremely significant to the African populaces. Moreover, the marriage rites are adhered to austerely and are normally extremely traditional. Marriage is considered as the commencement of the new life as two people are considered to be one. Within the African Traditional Religion, marriage is normally precious prolificacy and is correspondingly envisioned for the purpose of procreation. Marriage entails relational associations and intercommunity relations (Lugira, 34-78). The underlying endurance of kinship within the social structure relies on marriage and starts strong bonds amidst the individuals belonging to diverse families and clans particularly when the offspring are born. Community normally looks for lives up in the process of seeking either wife or the corresponding son-in-law. An individual with good moral qualities, hard-working within the physical work are expected to be reverential towards their corresponding elders and a good repute (Martin & Shelly, 67-145). Physical attractiveness is not of great concern in regard to the community’s prospects thus making the fecundity to be the fundamental requirement within the African Traditional marriage. Proposal had fewer chances in case the woman or the corresponding within her underlying family was disbelieved of being infertile. Moreover, wedding process was also slowed down in circumstances of suspicion of activities such as witchcraft, infertility, impotence and bad character. The main drive of marriage in African wedding was the social reproduction of the relationship group. The whole community inclusion of the living and the defunct are normally involved within the marriage process (Rivers & Nicole, 134-205). There exist particular rituals and taboos that ought to be adhered in marriage and the respect of the underlying in-laws coupled with the observance of the distance amidst in-laws. Prayers and sacrifices are provided to the prevailing ancestors on the behalf of the underlying groom and the corresponding bride. Fertility and healthy are normally considered fundamental in the African marriage wedding. A marriage ceremony within the African Traditional Religious is normally considered as fundamental process for the whole community (Foster & Donald, 89-123). Numerous ceremonies and rituals are normally performed over the period and at diverse locations. Moreover, the underlying stages of marriage vary from community to community and involve fundamental stages. The stages ensures that the exist companionship amidst the groom and the corresponding bride, engagement is normally undertaken and the bride affluence is granting to the bride’s family (Worth & Robert, 89-112). This was because it was the main way of offering rights to the offspring at their corresponding home of origin and devoid of the bride affluence no man is expected to claim offspring.
Dowry was also granted to aid the underlying families of the prevailing couple getting married since the families loose of the contributions to their corresponding families. There are also diverse forms of marriage such as the monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy is normally a kind of marriage where man stays devoted to a single woman and the children were depicted as being extremely fundamental efficacious and marking of the significance (Martin & Shelly, 67-145). Conversely, polygamy is kind of marriage where a man was having numerous wives and the man was to love the underlying wives equally. Moreover, the senior wife was granted preferential treatment and is commonly known as levirate union.
Introduction
Africa is a vast and varied continent comprising some the renowned oldest civilizations on the universe. It is normally considered as the origin and the home of broad diversity of the spiritual and cultures. Moreover, the colorful diversity is normally reflected within African diverse and intriguing weddings traditions (Lugira, 34-78). Wedding tradition is an indicative of the African continent in regard to the significance of the family. An African wedding entail bringing together of the dual populace as a single family or combining of the dual families mixture of the corresponding dual tribes into a single family unit. Moreover, the underlying perception of the family is seen as one of the act of unification of philosophies of the African continent. There exist numerous cultural units within the Africa and every culture and tribe possesses its own wedding and matrimonial traditions. Numerous wedding and marriage traditions are traced for their origins back generations and centuries. Moreover, numerous diverse religious are exemplified within Africa. Several northern Africans particularly that have been influenced by the underlying Muslim traditions whilst the southern part of Africa is occupied by the Christian, Hindu and the Jewish traditions that are intermingled with the underlying prehistoric traditions (Rivers & Nicole, 134-205).
Within numerous places within Africa young ladies are normally trained to be good wives from the onset of an early age. This enables them to learn the prevailing secret codes coupled with secret languages that permit them to talk other supplementary married women devoid of their husbands’ comprehension. Depending on the part of the Africa wedding ceremonies are normally very extravagant and possess lasting numerous days. Frequently massive formalities are held during which numerous couples are normally united at the same period. Within Sudan and other locations along the Nile men pay their wives’ family in sheep and cattle. Frequently, it is cumbersome to pay the underlying family enough cattle though adequate cattle normally remain to assist their new life (Lugira, 34-78). Bright festive colors, dance, song and music are normally fundamental elements of numerous African wedding ceremonies. Moreover, all the prevailing wedding ceremonies within the African traditions is the main concept of transitioning amidst childhood and corresponding adulthood. Within numerous African cultures children are mostly encouraged to marry at the early age of fifteen years as soon they have attained physical adulthood. Divorce is extremely rare within the African marriages because most of the prevailing problems in marriages are solved within the families. Frequently whole villages normally engage in aiding the couple in solving the problem thus making the marriage not to collapse.
Marriage is normally sacred in the entire world and is definitely true within Africa regardless of the matters of the prevailing religion or culture and religious beliefs. Numerous cultures possess special totem that is purely designed with the main purpose of reminding the prevailing couple of the cultural and corresponding tribal differences that ought to be allowed in order to make succeed.
Discussion
Across entire Africa, traditional cultural weddings are presently fading away because of the influx and normalization of the corresponding White Western weddings. There is glaring richness and significance of continuing African weddings coupled with stumbling of the culturally disparaging practice of the corresponding mimicking of the traditions of the West.
African society is a mixture of the culturally different traditions and corresponding rituals. Understanding of the African wedding traditions demands study of every countries, regions, tribes and cultural traditions .The traditions ought to take into consideration peculiar traditions within the group and the corresponding one that are not in line with the African traditions. Moreover, jumping of the broom is frequently mistaken as the African custom. it is normally considered as fundamental within the African traditions and taken away of sweeping away of the bad feelings in regard to the ancient union of American slaves (Worth & Robert, 89-112).
There are some particular similarities that are normally drawn amidst some of the African cultures in regard to weddings. African weddings are commonly known to be basic family affairs and are frequently reliant on the association amidst the man and woman and the corresponding family input and endorsement (Foster & Donald, 89-123). Marriages within Africa are powerfully dictated by the underlying religious inspirations. Numerous Northern African marriages are commonly unquestionable on their Muslim faith whilst other supplementary religions normally follow the traditions that are stipulated by their respective ethnic religions, Judaism, Christianity and Hinduism (Rivers & Nicole, 134-205). Moreover, same tradition within numerous sections of Africa normally emolument dowry before to marriage such as South Africa where lobola and gifts of cattle are normally paid to the family of the bride
Celebrations of the food and dance are extremely common theme amongst the African weddings. Frequently wedding celebrations normally last for hours to many weeks. The kinds of the food obliged during the underlying occasions fluctuate from state to region depending majorly on the prevailing local food trends. For instance, the guests of the Ghanaian wedding might enjoy popular celebratory dish that is commonly called Oto, which is organized with the onions, tomatoes whilst visitors of the Somali wedding may be preserved to the corresponding confectionary called Xalwo. Moreover, major characteristic of marriage merriments within Africa encompass gratification of music and dance. A wedding within the tribe of Yoruba is normally carried out by carrying out by playing of the corresponding iya’lu dundun,which incorporates drum that are mainly utilized for extraordinary occasions commonly in wedding ceremonies. It is normally accompanied by instrumental music, songs that depicts joy and religion is frequently undertaken by the juju artist. Within Nigeria an individual normally listen to the Mo yege and Halleluiah to commemorate wedding ceremonies (Martin & Shelly, 67-145).
Within Ghana, the influence of the family and corresponding religion is normally ostensible within the wedding ceremonies undertaken. This is carried out in three precise steps that last for a period of one month. The first and initial step entails performances of the Knocking by the prospective groom and the elder male members in the bride’s homestead. Moreover, this period they normally come with alcohol that is utilized in the libation process and money is also presented to the underlying brides’ family to depict the intentions of the groom by interviewing. This is subsequence by the interview and in case groom is unknown to the family of the bride they normally employ the interview as the sole opportunity of knowing better the groom and his corresponding family (Chidester, 45-67). They also prepare the list of the required gifts and the groom’s family in the process before the actual wedding or engagement process. The eventual stage of the wedding ceremony is normally engagement which is taken as the real wedding ritual. Prior to the invitation of the guests the involved families normally undertakes introduction and prayer process and the corresponding entreated gifts are normally succumbed for the endorsement. In the process the groom is not permitted to speak and the bride is concealed. In case the list is allowed the bride is exposed and she ought to approval to marry the groom. The consent of the bride is utilized to give groom ring, which is followed by prayers and presentations of the Bible that symbol the significance of the religion within marriage (Rivers & Nicole, 134-205). This is normally followed by the westernized church wedding. During the process of engagement ceremony the wedding party wear traditional garments of the kente cloth whilst the bride wear a headwrap,boubou or skirt with a buba cloth and the corresponding groom within the boubou. The wedding attire normally varies from the regions.
The prevailing union in regard to the man and woman normally comes with celebration of the natural continuousness of the life. Marriage is considered as the sole incubator that raises the balance of the socially functional offspring (Worth & Robert, 89-112). Nevertheless, within all existing communities bride are normally charged with extremely special responsibility and are handle with a lot of respect because of the underlying connection amidst the unborn and corresponding ancestors. Moreover, bride holds extremely powerful position in regard to the children. In particular parts of East Africa the groom’s family normally relocates to the bride village.
It is cumbersome for the populaces emanating from outside part of African continent to comprehend the prevailing love marriage traditions in regard to the local culture and the age of the marriage traditions coupled with customs that are part of the normal life (Chidester, 45-67). Comprehension of the particular social and traditional associations amidst states of the great Africa is cumbersome even though they normally seem to be the same in many ways. Social and traditional association of Africa are similar in religion section whilst the customs and culture differences amidst the regions stages of advancement, ethnic groups and tribes, which are possess important details. Traditional weddings and the corresponding pre marriage rites of passage for the underlying youths that is boys and girls extends to the prevailing family based values and are significant in constructing new unit through marriage. Moreover, the worth of virginity for the girls and boys, wedding anathemas, affection and corresponding respects polygamy. The engagement of the older family members in the preparations process of the wedding decisions are mainly entrenched into the prevailing culture and is still play fundamental role within the modern African society (Foster & Donald, 89-123). The underlying young Africans adhere to the old traditions that foster family values in order to make them belong to the fragment of the prevailing community and grants then with the forte and pride to recognize with the changing system. Systems dynamism and populace have their social resources within African traditions, which aid philosophy in filling the gaps amidst the recently shifted configurations of the social mosaic of the people dwelling within it.
African Marriage rites are extremely significant to the African populace and they are sternly followed. Within African Religion marriage is normally a cherished fecundity and mainly intended for the procreation purposes (Foster & Donald, 89-123). Marriage entails relational associations and corresponding intercommunity relations. Survival of the kinship within the social structure relies on the marriage and mainly established on the strong bonds that coexist amidst the individuals belonging to diverse families particularly when the offspring are present. Community normally lives to their expectations in the process of seeking wife or in-son- laws. They normally require people with good moral qualities, hard-working in regard to the somatic work, respectful to the elders and better character (Rivers & Nicole, 134-205). Moreover, physical desirability is not the community’s anticipations. Fertility is the fundamental demands within a marriage and there are limited chances of proposal in case either of the couple is suspected to be infertile.
Conclusion and Recommendations
In regard to the African weddings, traditions rely massively on the underlying culture of the religion and populace involved. Some weddings takes the form of the long held practices that pertain to engagement, symbols, ceremonious and clothing whilst others have moved away from embracing and reflecting customs from diverse parts of the world (Chidester, 45-67). African society is a mixture of the culturally different traditions and corresponding rituals. Understanding of the African wedding traditions demands study of every countries, regions, tribes and cultural traditions. The traditions ought to take into consideration peculiar traditions within the group and the corresponding one that are not in line with the African traditions.
Work Cited
Lugira, Aloysius M. African Traditional Religion. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 2009.
Onyefulu, Ifeoma. Here Comes the Bride!: An African Wedding Story. London: Frances Lincoln Children’s Books, 2007. Print.
Chidester, David. African Traditional Religion in South Africa: An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1997. Print.
Foster, Helen B, & Donald C. Johnson. Wedding Dress: Across Cultures. Oxford [u.a.: Berg, 2003. Print.
Okonkwo, Emmanuel. Marriage in the Christian and Igbo Traditional Context: Towards an Inculturation. Frankfurt am Main [u.a.: Lang, 2003. Print.
Martin, Katie, & Shelly Hagen. The Everything Wedding Book: Your All-in-One Guide to Planning the Wedding of Your Dreams. Avon, Mass: Adams Media, 2011.
Worth, Richard, & Robert Asher. Africans in America. New York: Facts On File, 2005.
Killian, Caitlin. North African Women in France: Gender, Culture, and Identity. Stanford, Calif: Stanford Univ. Press, 2006. Print.
Salami-Boukari, Safoura. African Literature: Gender Discourse, Religious Values, and the African Worldview. New York: African Heritage Pr ess, 2012. Print.
Rivers, Sabrina, & Nicole Hollander. The Tax-Deductible Wedding: More Wedding and Fun, Less Fret and Debt. Guilford, Conn: GPP Life, 2010.
Levine, Laurie. The Drumcafé’s Traditional Music of South Africa: Cd. Johannesburg: Jacana Media, 2005. Sound recording.
Brown, Lee M. African Philosophy: New and Traditional Perspectives. Oxford [u.a.: Oxford Univ. Press, 2004. Print.
Develop the fiscal policies
Name
Professor
Course
Date
Fiscal Policy
Introduction
Fiscal policy entails controlling government spending and tax regime by a central government. This is utilized in stabilization of business cycles, reduction of unemployment and inflation, and encouraging economic growth. In the US, fiscal policy is principally implemented at the federal level via acts of Congress as well as presidential actions. However, local governments and state also implement fiscal policies to stabilize their domestic local macro-economies. In the government sector, there are three optional tools in the employment of fiscal policy. These tools are government procurement, transfer payments, and taxation. A substitute to fiscal policy is the monetary policy. The fiscal policy is founded on the assumption that aggregate expenditures, particularly business investment, are the key sources of business-cycle volatility. The means of rectifying this instability is as a result realized via aggregate expenditures. The objective of fiscal policy is to influence aggregate expenditures, and consequently the macro-economy, directly through government procurement or indirectly through taxation and transfer payments.
US FISCAL POLICY
In regard to the U.S. fiscal policy, the sluggish pace of economic recovery and fragile job creation, in spite of the broad margin of surplus capacity, argues for sustaining supportive fiscal and monetary policies in the near term. In reality, the expansionary fiscal policy played a vital role in forestalling a deeper recession in the U.S. In reference to IMF analysis, the fiscal measures contribution to GDP growth was approximately 2% points in 2009 and an additional one percentage point in 2010. In the same period, the public held federal debt rose from approximately 36% of GDP in 2007 to approximately 62% of GDP in 2010. In the absence of remedial measures, and considering fundamental fiscal pressures predating the predicament, debt might reach approximately 95% of GDP by 2020. In the absence of policy adjustments, consequently the debt would continue rising (Bureau of Economic Analysis, News Release, 1/27/12). It is in this perspective that, the necessity for urgent measures to secure medium-range fiscal sustainability appear to be patently obvious.
Current GDP Growth in the US Economy. According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) advance estimate, the real GDP, meaning the output of services and goods produced by property and labor in the US, increased at a yearly rate of 2.8% in the last quarter of 2011. In the third quarter, the real GDP had increased 1.8%. Increase in real GDP in the last quarter of 2011 depicted positive contributions from personal consumption expenditures (PCE), private inventory investment, exports, nonresidential fixed investment, and residential fixed investment that were partially counterbalanced by negative contributions from spending by the federal government, local government, and state (Congressional Budget Office, 3/2011).
Current State of Inflation in the US Economy. Inflation is not likely to be a major predicament in the US economy. Inflation has risen considerably in 2011, but there is a strong likelihood that the trend is improbable to persist. In 2010, the US economy experienced remarkably low inflation, but in the previous 6 months, it experienced an inflation rate of over 2%. There are three elements of foundational inflation that have imbalanced the rate of inflation to be greater than the Federal Reserve Bank’s long-range target. These elements include rent, automobiles, and the prices of apparels (Bureau of Economic Analysis, News Release, 1/27/12).
Current State of Job Creation in the US Economy. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics alleges that, payroll employment in the nonfarm sector rose by approximately 200,000 in December 2011, and the rate of unemployment continued trending down at 8.5%. There have been some job gains in warehousing and transportation, retail trade, health care, mining, and manufacturing. For almost a year, the US economy has consistently experienced higher net new job creation rates than in the initial two years following the global economic recession. However, the current job creation rate is still at 50 of the +26 score found, when the country was technically in a depression (Alex Adrianson, NYT, 9/16/10).
The Existing Budget Situation. The US is currently experiencing deep economic and budgetary challenges. In contrast to the President’s budget estimates, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) baseline estimates largely mirror the postulation that current taxation and spending laws would remain unaffected. Under that supposition, CBO anticipates that, for the 2012 to 2021 period, there would be a cumulative deficit in the economy totaling to $6.7 trillion. CBO’s estimates depict that, in 2012, the deficit in the President’s budget may decline to a total of $1.2 trillion, or 7.4% of GDP. That deficit is $83 billion larger than the deficit anticipated by CBO for 2012 in its present baseline. The deficits in subsequent years in regard to the President’s proposals may be lesser than the 2012 deficit, even though they may still add considerably to the federal debt. The deficit may to 4.1% of GDP by the year 2015, but enlarge in subsequent years, reaching 4.9% of GDP in the year 2021(Bureau of Economic Analysis, News Release, 21/1/12).
Having come out from the recession, the President proposed a plan to restructure the economy. The 2012 Budget seeks to cut wasteful expenditure, while maintaining the investments requisite for job creation and economic growth. The budget targets limited federal resources, and proposes reforms how the government conducts its business. The fundamental facts in the budget include the following.
The Budget comprise above $1 trillion in reduction of deficit. Approximately 70% from cuts.
Non-security flexible expenditure freeze for five years would decrease the deficit by approximately $400 billion in the coming decade. (Congressional Budget Office, 3/2011).
Appropriate Fiscal Policies for the US Economy. The best fiscal policies for the US economy should address cuts to defense, entitlement, and domestic programs. Every one of the spending cuts would be suitable even if the government would be running deficits. Numerous federal programs diminish individual liberty and lead to economic distortions. In the event that these programs are cut, resources will flow from government related activities of low-return to private sector initiatives of higher-return. This section will illustrate how reductions in spending would eradicate the deficit of the federal budget over 10 years. It explains revenue and spending projections as a share of GDP in accordance with the 2011 Congressional Budget Office projections (Bureau of Economic Analysis, News Release, 1/27/12).The projections in relation to revenues presume the extension of substitute minimum tax reprieve and revoking of the tax increase in the health care law of 2010. The projections for expenditure change the CBO baseline to embrace more pragmatic postulations in regard to troop reduction abroad, and Medicare extension.
In Figure 1 below, the bottom line illustrates that with tax relief, federal revenues are projected to increase to 18.0% of GDP by the year 2021. This is as the economy recuperates and takes up again regular growth. The line at the top illustrates President Obama’s projected spending in regard to his 2012 fiscal budget. Spending, as a component of the GDP, is projected to plunge the coming few years as financial support from the stimulus bill of 2009 dwindles out and expenditure on war plummets, but spending is estimated to begin rising again subsequently. The high spending course would bring about higher debt, higher taxes, or both.
(Bureau of Economic Analysis, News Release, 1/27/12).
The line in the middle of the chart illustrates spending in the balanced budget draft. In this draft, expenditure cuts of above $1 trillion yearly by 2021 will be phased in approximately ten years. The cuts will create substantial savings in interest by 2021, and overall federal expenditure would plunge to 18.0% of GDP. This depicts an equivalent level in comparison to the federal revenues in 2021. With these cuts in place, the federal public debt would climax at 75% of GDP in 2013 and subsequently plunge to 64% of GDP by the year 2021.
The US should increase taxation in order to afford additional public goods, as is the case in Scandinavian countries. The tax revenues in the US are among the lowest, whereas it has one of the highest spending in government. This scenario depicts the budget predicament in the US economy. This anomaly must be corrected.
CONCLUSIONOfficial estimates show that, in the absence of reforms, federal expenditure will rise to above 40% of GDP by the year 2050 and higher subsequently. Local and state spending surpasses that, and consequently, the government would use more than 50% of the whole U.S. economy. Policymakers should institute the set of cuts presented in this paper, and subsequently pursue supplementary reforms including restructuring of Medicare.
Works Cited
Alex Adrianson. “Spending Cuts Are Good For the Economy”, The New York Times, 16 Sept 2010. Web. 31 Jan.2012.
Bureau of Economic Analysis. “News Release”, US Department of Commerce. 27 Jan. 2012. Web. 31 Jan. 2012.
Congressional Budget Office.”Preliminary Analysis of the President’s Budget for 2012”, Congressional Budget Office, March 2011. Web.31 Jan. 2012.
African Slavery in the USA
Name:
Tutor:
Course:
Date:
Introduction
In the recent past, many Africans have opted to move to the US as well as other European countries to seek permanent residency due to unfavorable living conditions in their home country. These conditions are brought about by a variety of issues including increased poverty, harsh economic conditions as well as consistent civil wars leading to political instability in most of the African nations. In the past, immigrants from Africa seek to pursue education abroad in an attempt to acquire knowledge and come and work back at to improve their living standards as well as that of their families in the home country. In contrast, the current African immigrants to the US are in pursuit of permanent residency by venturing in jobs, businesses and even marriage. Consequently, the influx of African immigrants in the US cities such as New York is inevitable. The immigrants from West Africa for instance, moved to the US bringing both positive and negative effects to the cities they occupy (Keedle, 2009, 49). The aforementioned immigrants were basically Muslims hence tensions resulting from differences in cultural practices are imminent. The immigrants however, contributed to the development of the cities through participating in nation building by venturing in businesses and provision of workforce in employment sector among other positive facets (Keedle, 2009, 49). The group however struggled to overcome slavery and racism they were initially subjected to by the American residence.
Despite their resistance by the American residence due to a variety of reasons including competition for jobs left for the residence, the West African immigrants had some positive aspects as well. Ito begin with, the immigrants ventured into businesses after settling in the US thereby contributing in the nation building through payment of tax. The immigrants also provided workforce in the employment sector especially those jobs that were considered hard for the American citizens. The African immigrants were considered fit for strenuous jobs characterized by less skills and low wages (Ness, 2005, 101).
The West African immigrants faced stiff resistance from the Americans residence when they migrated into the country due to a variety of reasons. At the outset, Americans believed that the immigrants would grab job opportunities that were designated for the former group (Keedle, 2009, 49). Besides, there were clashes in culture given the fact that the aforementioned immigrants hailed from Muslim background which had sharp contrast with the American Christian religious background (49). Moreover, the immigrants were treated to a harsh welcome through acts of slavery and racism. However, the West African immigrants later overcame the barriers and integrated into the diversified society. They managed to achieve this through a variety of ways including participation in local politics and sports, businesses, as well as through education. To begin with, the West African immigrants became professionals in various fields after undergoing training in those fields thereby offering services to both private and public sectors in the US. As a result, they interacted with the American citizens and therefore a positive relationship ensued.
Moreover, the West African immigrants also improved their relations with the Americans by engaging in sports and as well as participating in the country’s political elections. Besides, they also operated small businesses in the US thereby providing goods and services to the residence. This too improved the relationship with Americans thereby eliminating barriers that were earlier created between the American residence and the immigrants as a result of racism and slavery (Ness, 2005, 102). All the aforementioned factors enabled the immigrants to overcome diversity in culture and language in the US and live in harmony with the residence.
The integration of American culture and other immigrants’ including West African immigrants contributed to the diversity that is currently the characteristic feature of the New York City. The incorporation of West African immigrants into the New York City greatly influenced the diversity in the city. Notably, the black culture of the New York City is highly associated with the aforementioned group of immigrants.
Conclusion
Harsh economic conditions, political instability as well as consistent increase in poverty levels in a country form the causal factors for migration of Africans from their home country. The immigrants initially did so in pursuit of American education which was vital for the growth and development of the African states. However, immigrants from Africa as well as other nations changed their intention of migration to seek permanent residence in US as well as venture into businesses. Initially, they were met with strong resistance from the residence on suspicion that they would grab local jobs designated for the residence (Ness, 2005, 101). However, they later integrated with the residence after overcoming diversity in US and lived in harmony thereafter. The cultures were integrated with American diversity forming the famous black culture in the New York City.
Work cited:
Keedle, Jayne. West African Americans. Macquarie: Marshall Cavendish. 2009. Print
Ness, Immanuel. Immigrants, unions, and the new U.S. labor market. Philadelphia: Temple
University Press. 2005. Print.