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UFOs And Extraterrestrial Intelligent Life
UFO’s And Extraterrestrial Intelligent Life
The question “Are We Alone in the Universe?” has been brought up and speculated on for thousands of years. My answer to the above question is I don’t know. I will not try to give you answers in this essay, because as of now nobody knows the answer. I will merely speculate on this subject based on the information we obtain at present.
The question of UFO’s and intelligent life on other planets has become very popular. UFOs stand for Unidentified Flying Objects, which are any object in the sky that the viewer cannot recognize. Many scientists believe that we cannot be alone in the universe. There have been many unreported sightings of UFO’s. Many of them however are found to be hoaxed or misperceptions. However among the thousands and thousands of sightings surely some of them have to be genuine. Some researchers believe that there were UFO sightings in ancient times. The evidence however is highly speculative. The next significant reports came into existence during World War I and there were also reports during World War II. Many people point out that UFO’s do not and cannot exist and quote Physics and science to back them up. But we have to realize that we can only attempt to describe the universe in terms relative to things that we can measure. Just because UFO has not definitely been measured (as far as we officially know) does not prove they do not exist. John G. Fuller in the book UFO’s? Yes! says “I would point out that we have always been bombarded by certain wavelengths of radio as universal background noise from the edge of the universe. Until we discovered a way to generate and use radio for our own purposes, we had no way to know of it’s existence “out there”…Now that technology exists to “listen”, we can use that information to add to the description of the universe.” Who knows how many other means of describing the universe have yet to be discovered? Infinity is a very big place… and we see only a very narrow spectrum of such a small piece of it.
The prospect of discovering extraterrestrial life has fascinated humans for centuries. When we think of this possibility, we usually have in mind much more exciting then just finding life. We are looking for extraterrestrials with whom we can share ideas and stories. In other words what fascinates us the most is the opportunity to communicate with “intelligent civilizations”, which we may define as groups of beings with self-consciousness and with complex interactions between them, beings who can share their music, poetry, traditions and learning. Donald Goldsmith and Tobias Owen in the book The Search For Life in the Universe, state “The number of currently active civilizations in our galaxy approximately equals the lifetime of an average civilization with communications ability and desire, measured in years” . We can try to estimate the probability of life evolving on another planet, which should have the right conditions for the formation of life. We need to estimate the number of galaxies, the number of stars in an average galaxy, the number of stars that have planetary systems and the number of Earth like planets that are suitable for the formation of life. Some 100 billion galaxies are visible to modern telescopes and the total number in the universe must be even bigger, but lets stick to that. There are as many as hundreds of billions stars in an average galaxy, but once again let’s be conservative and call it 100 billion. So the total number of stars in the universe is roughly going to be 100 billion x 100 billion. At this point there are only 50 stars have been discovered that have planetary systems, but we have very little data to work with. Most cosmologists believe that planetary formation around a star is quiet common. Lets say that it’s not common and there is only one in a million planet in each system. This calculation will result in ten million, billion. Lets also assume that it is very rare among planets to be Earth like. Again only 1 in a million, and this is very conservative because we are assuming that only earth like planets are suitable for life. So by simply dividing we get ten billion. But for more scientific approach we can consider Drake’s equation. This equation basically states the number of communicating civilizations in our Galaxy, which depends on a number of factors which when combined yield a habitable planet where life can develop and grow to a certain level of technological advance. So, by his estimate the number of communicating civilizations in our Galaxy is 10,000.
There are up to 50 billion planets like earth in our own Milky Way galaxy. The chances that none of those planets support life are so slim that they can be basically discounted. Many of the stars that have been observed contain rock and iron rich material, which is connected to them by gravitational force of orbiting planets. This is another indication that life may be common in our galaxy. There are many planets like earth orbiting those stars and the probability that there is life similar to ours is greater then it was before we considered this evidence.
There are few conditions that are important when we are considering the possibility of life on other planets. Those include temperature, water and atmosphere. Also the planet has to be in a suitable habitable zone, which means that it has to be in small range distances from the star where temperature will be suitable, water may exist in liquid form and atmosphere will be retained.
The search for life in our solar system reached its highest peak with successful landing of the two Viking spacecrafts on mars in 1976. They contained materials to look for biological processes, photosynthesis and respiration. Although metabolism was found, they failed to detect any presence of organic molecules. This unfortunate discovery most likely means that mars does not support even low forms of life. Because we are not able to space travel yet, the only way to try to communicate with intelligent beings outside our solar system is through the radio telescopes. Those telescopes are able to detect radio signals sent out by intelligent life from other planets. Now it is important to decide which stars to listen to and at which frequencies.
Just a couple of years ago everybody believed that formation of life is such a rare even that we are almost certainly the only intelligent species in the universe. But with recent discovery of other planetary systems, the odds have shifted in favor of life. The existence of earth does not imply anything about the probability of life elsewhere, because if there was no life here, we would not be exist to observe it. But if life arose independently on some other planet, and since planetary systems are very common, then life should be abundant in the universe. And if that is the case, that means that intelligent life could be abundant in the universe as well.
Then why do so many scientists reject the idea of aliens visiting out planet? This is because according to our laws of physics, interstellar travel is simply impossible. However if we look back at 19th century, same thing was said about flying and nuclear warfare declared to be impossible just a few years before it became a reality. History always teaches us that if physics declares such and such to be undoable, a major revolution could be just around the corner.
Today we are faced with 2 such revolutions. The first one is Free Energy. Quantum physics tells us that vacuum is far from being empty; in fact it holds great amounts of energy, which is called zero point energy. Some physicists believe in that and working on this theory. Companies are looking for investors to develop and produce the invention, but they have big obstacles on their way. All the major investment companies are not very eager to help them, since this new technology can easily destroy whole industries. Once this or any other device of this sort will be made, the human civilization will be transformed instantly. This would also solve our great global problems that we are facing today. This will end the destruction of the environment by cars, airplanes and power plants. They will provide counties to develop energy, but without environmental and health penalties which many countries have paid and are still paying now. And even more important, this will give us the freedom of solar system.
As of now we are very limited on all of our space activities, and the reason for that is the lack of powerful energy sources. We are sitting on the surface of the earth and it takes enormous energy to get us out because of our gravity. If we are introduced with abundant energy, we will have the freedom to travel in the solar system. Even interstellar travel will become a practical reality, since travel at huge speeds will no longer be energy prohibited. Now, would those ships be prohibited by the speed of light? Some physicists believe that it is possible to make space-time itself. This means to surround the spaceship with local space time in such way that light barrier is not impaired in any way, while by looking from outside, the ship is moving at enormous speeds. NASA is taking this idea and others like it very seriously. They are working on a Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program. “Here are the 3 breakthroughs that we’ll need to enable practical interstellar travel:
1. Discover new propulsion methods that eliminate or dramatically reduce the need for propellant. This implies discovering fundamentally new ways to create motion, presumably by manipulating gravity or inertia or by manipulating any other interactions between matter and space-time.
2.Discover how to attain the ultimate achievable transit speeds to dramatically reduce deep space travel times. This implies discovering a means to move a vehicle at or near the actual maximum speed limit for motion through space or through the modification of space-time itself.
3.Discover fundamentally new on-board energy production methods to power propulsion devices. This third goal is included in the program since the first two goals could require breakthroughs in energy generation to power them and since the physics underlying the propulsion goals is closely linked to energy physics. “
To power the vehicle and its propulsion, some form of power generation is needed. If you seen Star Trek, you probably noticed that they were using Antimatter. This is real stuff and not just a science fiction. Antimatter is matter with its electrical charge reversed. Positrons are anti-electrons, which are like electrons but only with positive charge. Antiprotons are like protons but with a negative charge. Positrons, antiprotons and antiparticles can be created at labs and can even be trapped and stored for days or weeks at a time. Antimatter behaves the same way to gravity as does normal matter. It is very hard to make it right now because to create one milligram of antimatter right now, we would need about One Hundred Billion dollars. Even though one milligram is more then enough for research purposes, the amount would be needed for large-scale applications. It is necessary for the price to drop at least by some amount in order for it to be commercially viable.
The point here is for the highly advanced extraterrestrial culture, interstellar travel could be as easy as an intercontinental flight is for us. That’s why skeptics always back out with the following argument: if aliens exist, and interstellar travel is possible, why aren’t they visiting us? To understand and fully appreciate this question, we have to keep in mind the standard skeptical argument against the reality of UFO’s; “the laws of physics exclude the possibility of interstellar travel, even if extraterrestrials existed in the first place which is highly unlikely”. In other words, UFOs cannot be extraterrestrial because interstellar travel is impossible, and interstellar travel is impossible because otherwise there would be UFOs of extraterrestrial origin. Scientists should recognize the indirect nature of this argument, but often they don’t. The truth behind scientific discoveries has a complex psychology to it, and social factors like authority, majority opinion and prejudice play as much role as observation and mathematical deduction. In the Scientific American issue “The Future of Space Exploration”, Timothy Ferris, a science writer, makes a forceful case for interstellar exploration based on current technology. But then he writes,
“From the second clue – that aliens have not yet landed on the White House lawn – we can posit that our immediate celestial neighborhood is probably not home to a multitude of technologically advanced civilizations that spend their time boldly venturing to other star systems on board big, imposing spacecraft. If that was the case, they would have shown up already, as they evidently have not (I am, of course, discounting reports of UFO sightings and alien abductions, the evidence for which is unpersuasive.)”
The word “unpersuasive” shows that it is not logic and rationality that determines his conclusion, but a mindset. When people consider consistent UFO evidence, like sightings from qualified observers including highly trained military pilots and radar operators over the past 5 decades, it seems very bizarre how an educated person can simply omit that accumulated amount of evidence and call UFO as “unpersuasive”, unless the person is really unaware of the evidence.
Another example is the 1968 Condon Report, which was a scientific investigation of UFO sightings at the University of Colorado. It was commissioned by the United States Air Force. It investigated many cases, some of which were abstract. One case (investigation of a Greenwich, 1956 sighting), for example states:
“At least one UFO was tracked by air traffic control radar (GCA) at two USAF-RAF stations, with apparently corresponding visual sightings of round, white rapidly moving objects which changed directions abruptly. Interception by RAF fighter aircraft was attempted; one aircraft was vectored to the UFO by GCA radar and the pilot reported airborne radar contact and radar gunlock., The UFO appeared to circle around behind the aircraft and followed it in spite of the pilot’s evasive maneuvers. Contact was broken when the aircraft returned to base, low on fuel. The preponderance of evidence indicates the possibility of a genuine UFO in this case. The weather was generally clear with good visibility.”
Yet, after that UFO skeptic Condon, in his conclusions and recommendations, states that UFO phenomena is not an important field in which to look for major scientific discoveries. Such disregards for the actual facts are not science; they are nothing more then denial. And one more time just to illustrate the many intelligent people have come to different conclusions, here is a quote:”For many years I have lived with a secret, in a secrecy imposed on all specialists and astronauts. I can now reveal that every day, in the USA, our radar instruments capture objects of form and composition unknown to us. And there are thousands of witness reports and a quantity of documents to prove this, but nobody wants to make them public. Why? Because the authorities are afraid that people may think of some kind of horrible invaders. So the password still is: We have to avoid panic by all means.”
Letter from Senator Goldwater to Lee M. Graham, October 19, 1981
“To answer your questions, I have never gained access to the so-called ‘Blue Room’ at Wright Patterson, so I have no idea what is in it. I have no idea of who controls the flow of “need-to-know” because, frankly, I was told in such an emphatic way that it was none of my business that I’ve never tried to make it my business since. I wish you luck on your investigation. I’m one of those people who believe that with some two billion planets scattered around our universe, there has to be a couple of more that can support life on it.”
As we look at incredibly high numbers of planets suitable for the formation of life I think it is extremely unlikely that our planet is the only one where life has evolved. It may be significant to ask why we have not met it yet, or at least heard from it. Maybe there has not yet been enough time or maybe we are using wrong technology. Teams are searching skies for many years looking for a radio signal from an alien source, but so far with no success. Radio signals do seem a logical way to send messages over big astronomical distances, but an alien society with a lot more advantage in technology could be using something very different. With thousands years advantage, they may have technology beyond our comprehension It is possible that when they had radio signals, if they ever used them, we had no radio receivers and their information could not reach us.
Bibliography:
1.Harkins, Roger. UFOs? Yes!, The World Publishing Company, New York 1969
2.Goldsmith, Donald. The search for life in the universe, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc 1993
3.http:/www.lerc.nasa.gov/WWW/PAO/html/warp/brakthru.htm
4.http://www.ncas.org/condon/
5.http://www.bigear.org/vol1no2/sagan.htm
Tool Use Of Chimpanzees
Tool Use Of Chimpanzees
I chose this topic because of all of the living primates, I would say that chimpanzees are the closest to ourselves. They are the most advanced of the living primates and have the most extensive tool use. I also chose it because I think the tool use of primates is the easiest way to distinguish between their cultures. I believe that through generations of trial-and-error tool discovery, and passing down behaviors, they have developed more advanced cultures then any other species, next to humans.It is interesting to me to think that this is how the evolution of humans started out with just a few primitive tools used for nutrition, grooming, intimidation, and defense. In a few million years, they could be evolved to our level. With that, where might we be at that point.One of the most interesting aspects but less common of their tool use is their ability to defend themselves with clubs, missiles, or stones. Some use theses just as show but some really mean business. It has been observed that only savanna chimpanzees are capable of any really effectiveness and accuracy while forest chimps while poorly aimed attempts of throwing are only used for show.It has been speculated that African apes are dehumanized descendents of savanna hominoids that were forced to retreat into the forests in the wake of hominid hunters who had invented spears. This brings the question of weather those were our early ancestors and if that chimps are nearly at that point in their evolution.
During thunderstorms , Gombe chimps get excited, break off or pick up and brandish branches a dash around precipitately in defense as if being alarmed at something. Occasionally, they would strike another chimp or another animal with their stick, often releasing just before striking. This, to me, seems to be a sign that they are ready to defend themselves from whatever danger is coming their way. During periods of excitement in banana feeding grounds, they threw sticks, stones, or handfuls of vegetation as part of displays directed towards other chimpanzees, baboons and humans. Less then half of the males that participated exhibited signs of actual aiming and rarely hit their target. They tried throwing both overhand as well as underhand. During the banana episode observed, as the frequency of aggression increased, more males engaged in it as well as youngsters as well as one adult female chimp. As it went on the ration of hit per miss increased as well.
This observation means to me that they might be conscious that they are tapping into a possible breakthrough but cannot yet realize the possibilities of what regular spear throwing could bring. I believe it is yet generations from possibly their true realization of the usefulness of the spears or “missiles”. It is becoming instinctive however but not yet as refined yet as is their tools for fishing termites.In a rare instance, a Gombe adult male, Mike, threw a sizeable rock (25cm x 10cm x 10cm) at a group of brush pigs, striking one. He and his companions had surrounded the pigs and when the pigs retreated into the brush, Mike and his companions caught a piglet and ate it. In an earlier observed instance, Mike had used a 4 gallon kerosene can to display and bluff his way into the pinnacle of the group, past the before leader, Goliath. Since that instance, he has been knocked from his position of power.
This tells me that there are chimps with a higher capacity to understand weapons and the abilities of them. He however didn’t fallow up on this as much as he could have. It is puzzling that they fear things like that but cannot grasp it enough to consistently use weapons for hunting and some other purposes.
In one observation in Bossou, chimps threw underhand sticks of 100-400 cm in length at their observers. Their effectiveness and accuracy unfortunately was evident on the observers. They would climb a branch into a position nearly right above the observers and hurl them underhand. After further observation, when the chimps were further accustomed to the human observers, they stopped throwing sticks at them. The only ones that still threw sticks at them were the younger chimps, throwing less menacing sticks of only 40-100 cm in length.This seems to be a good example of cultural diversity in chimps due to tool use. It seems to have been a more prominent part of their lives because they seem to have developed an actual technique to throwing their spears. It is unknown why they had become more accustomed to using spears or what they had been exposed to.
In a study of Zaire chimps, observers confronted them with large caged felines and a dummy stuffed leopard. When sticks and clubs were available, they would brandish clubs or throw the sticks at the potential attacking cats. I think that one of the most important traits that all chimpanzees could catch onto would be the use of weaponry. It could also cause them to branch off between the chimps who had developed spears and clubs. Those brandishing spears and clubs could run the more primitive chimps out of their area. It would be a big step in their evolution as it could have been a large step in our evolution.
Another important “branch” in the tool use of chimpanzees is their use of sticks as probes for fishing out insects as well as other things. This is an important part of most chimp’s daily lives with the exception of the chimps in Budongo who have not exhibited any tool use at all. I don’t believe that this has anything to do with their intellectual capacity but more to do with their need. The needs of their lives have been met and there is no need for growth of their culture. When the need comes to adapt, it will be survival of the fittest.Chimps have been observed using sticks, stems, slender twigs, strips of bark fiber, and vine sections to fish for alate termites. The average length being between six to twelve inches. Out of 145 tools measured in a study, their average length was 30.7 cm.
The chimps inspect the mounds on their daily rounds. Tools are inspected variable before, during, and after mound inspection. They searched no further then ten meters away to find a new tool to use as a probe but were noted to have brought used tools from old mounds up to 100 yards away. This tells me that they have a conscious plan and definitely know where they are going. Various tools are sometimes used sequentially to find the best ones. Their tools were modified; stems were denuded of leaves, wide grass or bark was divided longitudinally, frayed or bend ends were nipped off. They apparently have an idea of their tool and know what they are making.
Fishing tools aloud chimps first helpings on the termites. Birds, other monkeys, and baboons wait until time for their migration and they fly out of their mounds. This is a sign of the advanced intelligence exhibited by chimpanzees.
Gombe chimps were also observed using sticks to extract two species of ants from subterranean and arboreal nests. These sticks were observed to be between 1.5 and 3.5 feet in length and ripped off nearby vegetation or picked up off the ground.The chimps observed the previously raided nests and fallowed ants to pristine nests. When they spotted surface perturbations that indicated the presence of unraided subterranean nests, they dug rapidly into the nests with their hands and ants rapidly swarmed to the entrance in defense of their nest. To avoid being bitten, they would sit on logs, branches or saplings. They dash in, insert the smaller end of the probe in and twist it down tightly, then move away. They pull out the stick when it is about three quarters covered by the ants. The chimp then holds the ant covered end to their mouth and with their other hand, swiftly sweep the ants into their mouth and chew rapidly. The bunch is about the size of a hen’s egg and contains upwards three hundred ants.
This is an important trait of chimps because it is probably the most widely used tool throughout Africa. Probing ant and termite hills is one of the only tools uses observed in chimps in both eastern and western Africa.The drinking sop is another observation made in chimps. They insert wads of masticated leaves into tree holes and suck out the steeped liquid. This is observed in Gombe chimps to such the oil from palm oil trees.A very interesting behavior observed in chimps is the use of tools for hygene. It is hard to believe that any animal is conscious of their hygiene. I believe that chimps are however the closest thing to a human being that there is.
Several chimps in captivity were observed using sticks for oral hygiene. Infant chimps were observed using sticks as picks to clean out their noses. Other mature chimps used sticks as picks to clean out their teeth. The most interesting of these was a 9 year old female named Belle who became the regular dental hygienist for 4 other chimps. She employed her fingers as well as an assortment of handy wooden tools, one of which being a piece of red cedar denuded of leaves, used for picking foreign particles from the teeth. She even extracted a deciduous molar from the mouth of a patient supine male.Oral hygiene isn’t the only thing that chimps worry about. They also use leaves for various grooming purposes and toiletries. They were observed using plucked leaves to wipe mud, blood, feces, urine, and sticky food residue from honey and fruit juices from various parts of their bodies.
It is interesting that chimps are conscious of such things as grooming because some things just don’t seem practical. It seems that some of those behaviors could be pure vanity. I don’t see the hazard that could be caused by some things.Interest lies in another use of tools in the daily life of some chimps. Cracking nuts adds a new dimension to their intellect it seems, multiple tool use. The use of “hammer and anvil” is a more advanced behavior then it seems. It employs a cooperation of tools.
In the Sapo forest of Liberia, chimps are observed cracking 4 species of nuts: Coula edulis, Panda oleosa, Parinari excelsa, and Sacoglottis gabonensis. They pound with stone hammers of about 3.3 pounds on boulders and tree roots.On the Tiwai Island researches found cracked shells around hard tree roots with lacerations. They didn’t observe any chimps fleeing with stones in their hands and found no stones nearby that would be effective hammers but found several serviceable clubs nearby. They also found stone anvils with cracked shells scattered around them.
An interesting fact is that Gombe chimps are not observed cracking nuts. One of the most highly eaten nuts are the ones that come from the oil palm trees and the pulp from these trees make up a significant part of their diet. As well as the palm trees providing a good anvil for cracking the nuts.Due to the lack of hazard, younger chimps have been observed fishing for termites, wipe for toilet use, and sponge with leaves. They however do not get into ant dipping until later age. Their tool use is shown to be a learned trait from parents of chimps, primarily the mothers. This backs up my idea of cultures evolving through generations within their specific groups.At six months of age, the infant chimps are noticed reaching for twigs and leaves but are making no use of them, only mimicking their mothers. It is not until 8 months that they manipulate possible crude use but still do not use them. They don’t begin their termite dipping until they reach the age of 2. At 2 years of age, they select inappropriate tools and use them crudely and inefficiently. At three to four years of age, the novice termite fishers are improving but not yet as persistent as mature adults. It as at this age that they also develop into successful leaf spongers.
While their mothers are dipping for ants, they cling tightly to their mothers and watch intently but stay as far away from danger as they can. They have been observed practicing the ant dipping method away from ant hills. They aren’t usually successful ant dippers until they reach adolescence at 7 years of age. The youngest successful ant dipper, however, was observed at 46 months of age.An interesting observation made in captivity was that when face with problem solving situations to be solved with tools, the more mature and older chimps were more successful. Probably due to their practice with using tools throughout their life in non-problematic situations.
Sex also plays an important role in dietary tool use. Seventy-five percent of females engage in dietary tool use whereas only forty-five percent of males use tools for dietary purposes. Females engage in slightly longer bouts of termite dipping on average then do males. They also engage in more ant dipping sessions that last for more then one hour.The question of efficiency posses an interesting question. I believe that females will make more advancements in tools then will males because of more practice that they have at tool use. This clashes with some facts that it is the males that are making more advancements in tool use for weapons because nearly all males will pick up a weapon before a female. This poses an interesting question. I believe that the answer is in male aggression. The males are more aggressive then females and as such will be more likely to pick up a weapon.I believe that the tool use of chimps is what divides their specific cultures from one another. Some say that it is the feeding habits of them but that ties in directly with tool use. I believe that the dominant cultures of chimpanzees will be those that develop advanced weapons and those that don’t develop weapons will be pushed out or maybe not even survive. I believe this because it is what seems to separate our cultures in human civilization. It seems to be all about the ability to adapt to one another and built the better tools. That is what divides the men from the beasts and I believe that chimps are narrowing that gap more then any other primate or any animal.
Bibliography
Primate Behaviors, by Bernstein, Irwin S.; Academic Press; 1970
Apes of the World, by Tuttle, Russel H.; Noyes Press; 1986
www.cnn.com
www.wildchimps.org
This research aimed at addressing itself to the causes of stress in paramedics and the effects it has on their morale, motiva
TOC o “1-3” h z u Abstract PAGEREF _Toc358825046 h 31.0Introduction PAGEREF _Toc358825047 h 52.0Literature Review PAGEREF _Toc358825048 h 53.0Methodology PAGEREF _Toc358825049 h 8Research Design PAGEREF _Toc358825050 h 8Sampling Method PAGEREF _Toc358825051 h 8Data Collection Method PAGEREF _Toc358825052 h 9Ethical Considerations PAGEREF _Toc358825053 h 114.0Results and Findings PAGEREF _Toc358825054 h 12Positive work effects PAGEREF _Toc358825055 h 12Stress factors PAGEREF _Toc358825056 h 12Effects of stress PAGEREF _Toc358825057 h 135.0Discussion PAGEREF _Toc358825058 h 146.0Recommendations PAGEREF _Toc358825059 h 167.0Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc358825060 h 17References PAGEREF _Toc358825061 h 18APPENDICES PAGEREF _Toc358825062 h 20Appendix 1: Interview Guide for the Respondents PAGEREF _Toc358825063 h 20Apendix 2: Preliminary Data Analysis PAGEREF _Toc358825064 h 20Apendix 2a: Preliminary Data Analysis – Interview 001 PAGEREF _Toc358825065 h 20Apendix 2b: Preliminary Data Analysis – Interview 002 PAGEREF _Toc358825066 h 26Apendix 2c: Preliminary Data Analysis – Interview 003 PAGEREF _Toc358825067 h 30Apendix 2d: Preliminary Data Analysis – Interview 004 PAGEREF _Toc358825068 h 35Appendix 3: Thematic analyses PAGEREF _Toc358825069 h 41Appendix 4: Face Sheets PAGEREF _Toc358825070 h 45Appendix 4a: Face Sheet 001 PAGEREF _Toc358825071 h 45Appendix 4b: Face Sheet 002 PAGEREF _Toc358825072 h 45Appendix 4c: Face Sheet 003 PAGEREF _Toc358825073 h 46Appendix 4d: Face Sheet 004 PAGEREF _Toc358825074 h 46Appendix 5: Ethics Form A PAGEREF _Toc358825075 h 47Appendix 5: Ethics Form B PAGEREF _Toc358825076 h 79
AbstractThis study aimed to establish the effects that stress had on the motivation, morale and overall performance of Paramedics. It sought to establish the relationship that existed between these causes and the effects. The study was descriptive in nature and aimed at exploration of experiences, views, perceptions and observations. Qualitative data collection methods were adopted and the researcher used one on one interviews. The population was defined as paramedic students in Flinders University who had worked in Saudi Arabia, and involved a sample of four purposively selected respondents. The study found that although paramedics feel motivated by adequate training and service to people, a wide range of factors contributes to them getting job related stress. These factors include work overload, long working hours and poor channels of communication among others. The research also established that stress causes reduced performance, low morale and increased rate of absenteeism among paramedics. The study concludes that stress in paramedicine comes from many sources and all stakeholders are contributors as well as victims of the stress. It then goes ahead and suggests some ways in which stakeholders can reduce the causative agents of stress.
1.0IntroductionWork related stress is a well-known phenomenon in many professions. However, some professions are more prone to it than others. Paramedicine, by its very nature, is among the professions with the highest risks of stress and its many manifestations. Extensive research has been carried out on stress, its characteristics and effects on paramedics (McFarlane, Williamson and Barton, 2009).
This research aimed at addressing itself to the causes of stress in paramedics and the effects it has on their morale, motivation and performance. The study approached the issue on a causal – effect theory with the aim of determining how the paramedics felt the various factors that they feel predispose them to stress would affect their overall on-the-job performance. The study also sought to fill a gap left by other studies in that it did not draw its own recommendations but will sought to gather these from the paramedics themselves thereby emerging with home-grown solutions for Paramedics problems.
2.0Literature ReviewStress has been found to heavily affect the level of employee output.
Data Analysis & Presentation
To analyse the research data collected, preliminary data analysis (Appendix 2) and then thematic analysis (Appendix 3: Thematic analysis) approach were used. Preliminary analysis involves studying the obtained patterns of responses or observations from the respondents (Grbich 1999). In this case, the transcripts prepared from the interviews and the obtained findings based on the responses given by the respondents were presented through the use of the descriptions given by the respondents during the interview and in response to the asked questions.
Thematic analysis is an important analysis tool in qualitative research since it identifies the implicit and explicit concepts captured in collected data. It puts its emphasis on the description and organisation of a data set. The method can be used inductively or deductively and the researcher opts on the application depending on the epistemology of their study (Boyatzis, 1998). Since the data collected was intact, the researcher used the Block, group and label approach to thematic analysis. The first step involved identifying which among the collected data was relevant to the research (Corbin and Strauss, 2008). Next, the researcher used the Preliminary Data analysis sheets a (Apendix 2) to group the data into columns and used it to prepare the thematic analysis sheets (Appendix 3).
Ethical Considerations
It is important to note that the sampling process, piloting and actual data collection processes were conducted informally and with the verbal consent of participants. For the purpose of observation guidelines, the researcher sought the approval of the Social and Behavioural research ethics Committee (Apendix 2: Ethics form)
As the data collected during this study contains very sensitive and personal information, all participants were assured of total confidentiality, anonymity and guaranteed that the findings of this research shall not cause them any professional or reputational harm whatsoever (Mantri 2009; Grbich 1999). It was important for the researcher to identify the possible harm or damage, both personal and professional, which could be caused on the participants if any of the information given was traced back to them. Finally, the findings of this result were used and disseminated exclusively for academic purposes.
4.0Results and FindingsMajority of the participants in the research were practicing paramedics seeking further education in medical related fields. The data was organised into face sheets (Appendix 4). Four themes were identified in the description of the available data and labelled, positive work aspects, stress factors, stressor effects and possible solutions. The participants provided concise information for the different themes identified. They discussed their work experiences and identified numerous challenges which faced them when undertaking their duties as paramedics.
Positive work effectsThis theme aimed at capturing the specific elements inherent in the work that boosted the morale of the practitioners. The participants identified factors including adequate training which made feel them competent enough to offer the services required to them. The most prevalent motivation under this theme though was the service to the people angle with 75% of the respondents saying that they derive satisfaction from having saving lives or assisted a person in need of medical services. As Respondent number two put it,
“Most people in Saudi Arabia cannot access medical care . . . . . . . being able to serve people so desperately in need of medical care is inspiring.”
Stress factorsThe aim of this theme was to establish the various factors that paramedics consider as the major causes of job related stress. This was the main theme of the research. It emerged that a wide range of factors contribute to stress in the workplace. Huge workload was the most prevalently mentioned source of work related stress with 75% of the respondents mentioning it directly or mentioning some of its causes. The workload was said to be caused by understaffing, terrorism and violence. Another cause of stress which was mentioned by 50% of the respondents was long work hours which lead to burnout. Poor communication channels were also cited as a factor leading to stress. The respondents also mentioned Traffic congestion, lack of crowd control mechanisms and the ever increasing threat of malpractice litigation as factors that interfere with their work reducing efficiency which then interprets to frustration and stress.
Figure 1: Causes of stress among Saudi paramedics
Effects of stressThe respondents were unanimously (100%) agreed that the major result observed on stressed paramedics is reduced morale and motivation. This was also indicated to result in reduced efficiency and productivity by 75% of the respondents. 50% of the respondents said that a stressed paramedic was prone to errors. In the long run, the respondents (75%) indicated that stress takes its toll on the health of the individual which directly results in absenteeism and higher incidence of elongated sick leaves.
5.0DiscussionThe toll that work related stress and burnout takes on the psyche, motivation and morale of paramedics cannot be gainsaid. The daily encounters in their operations leave indelible marks on the paramedics’ psychological state (Clohessy and Ehlers, 1999). As enumerated by the previous studies analysed in the literature, this affects not only the paramedics but also the society in terms of resources needed to replace paramedics and the opportunity cost of losing one. McFarlane, Williamson and Barton (2009) draw a correlation between the factors to dissatisfaction, errors and decreased attention to patients. The characteristic responses to these factors as have been shown in the studies rhyme with those listed by Vettor and Kosninski (2000). These include emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and negative assessment of oneself.
Coping theory has been identified as the most effective way of dealing with the problem. The theory involves two broad types; problem and emotion focused coping. Problem focused coping involves exerting effort in the solution or management of the problem which resulted in the distress. Kilburn and Whitlock (n.d) explains that with this approach, the focus is in the assimilation relevant information to assist in planning and making decisions aimed at resolving the differences. On the other hand, emotional focused coping focuses on the alleviation of the emotional distress by adoption of cognitive processes like positive attitude, emotional support or stop gap measures like smoking and alcohol (Kilburn and Whitlock, n.d.).
The use of peer support in helping the victims has been identified as one of the most effective tools in dealing with affected workers. Okada et al (2007) has suggested that the individuals can be guided towards a positive coping mechanism like the adoption of beneficial hobbies like exercising rather than alcohol and smoking. Pre service training on stress management and coping has also been suggested as an essential tool to ward off possibilities of having to deal with adverse effects of stress in the future.
However, as shown by Robinson (2002), it is not all doom and gloom, the improvement in levels of stress management from the 1993 levels if well build upon can be enhanced. Further research is therefore necessary to identify the factors that have led to this improvement with an aim of capitalising on them. This would greatly benefit the paramedicine profession by retaining more employees and at a higher efficiency and motivation level. This would in turn ease the pressure on resources and also ease the resources for other improvement areas in the profession.
6.0RecommendationsStress and its causes are not quantifiable or easy to separate. It is thus recommended that the best way to deal with stress is to first and foremost tackle its causes. The researcher sough suggestions from the respondents on what they would recommend and the suggestions were as varied as were the causes. What emerges as the recurrent theme is that all stakeholders have a role to play in this. It is therefore recommended that the policy makers endeavour to make adequate staffing to ease the workload on paramedics, shifts should also be reviewed so as to make a balance between the available staff and fatigue levels. It would also help if proper communication channels were established through which two way information would flow swiftly. Civic education would also play a great role in avoiding crowd interference in scenes.
The government should also establish legal assistance programs for Paramedics against wrongful malpractice litigation. On the other hand, it is upon the paramedics themselves to change their attitudes towards some factors and ways of coping. As noted earlier, some people adopt proactive product focused coping mechanism which differs a lot from the reactive emotion focused mechanism. The management should also organise counselling sessions for the paramedics and make arrangements for debriefings after traumatising assignments and experiences.
7.0ConclusionThough the research cannot be said to be entirely indicative of the entire paramedicine field owing to its limited target population and the small sample size explored, it nevertheless points to a justifiable conclusion that stress is a formidable risk in the profession. The stress as described from the respondents emerges from many aspects of the field including the practice itself, the administration as well as personal attitudes of the paramedics themselves.
All stakeholders can therefore be said to be the source as well as victims of the effects of the stress with the authorities having to contend with increased pressure on resources needed to alleviate the effects on the paramedics and the patients. The wider population has also been shown to contribute to stress through frustration and as consumers of the services they become victims of the stress when the quality of services offered becomes compromised. The paramedics too contribute to stress through negative attitudes and coping mechanisms that are not proactive which end up complicating the matter further.
It is therefore not farfetched to say that the cyclic nature of stress factors could continue in perpetuity unless concerted efforts are made by all concerned to break the vicious cycle.
ReferencesBlau, G, Chapman, S & Gibson, G 2011, ‘Exploring the Importance of Different Items as Reasons for Leaving Emergency Medical Services Between Fully Compensated, Partially Compensated, and Non-Compensated/Volunteer Samples’, Journal of Allied Health, vol. 40, no. 3, pp.e33-e37.
Boyatzis, R. 1998. Transforming qualitative information: Thematic analysis and code development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Clohessy, S & Ehlers, A 1999, ‘PTSD symptoms, response to intrusive memories and coping in ambulance service workers’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, vol.38, pp.251-265.
Corbin, J. and Strauss, A. 2008. Basics of Qualitative Research 3rd Ed. Sage: Thousand Oaks, Ca.Top of Form
Glanz, K., Rimer, B. K., & Lewis, F. M. 2002. Health behavior and health education: theory, research, and practice. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.Bottom of Form
Grbich, C 1999, Qualitative Research in Health: An Introduction, Allen & Unwin, NSW.
Kilburn, E & Whitlock, J n.d., ‘Coping’, Cornell Research Program on Self Injurious Behavior in Adolescents and Young Adults, viewed on 6 September 2012, <http://www.crpsib.com/userfiles/File/Coping%20Lit%20Review.pdf>.
Kumar, R 2008, Research Methodology, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.LeBlanc, V, MacDonald, R, McArthur, B, King, K, &Lepine, T 2005, ‘Paramedic Performance in Calculating Drug Dosages Following Stressful Scenarios, Prehospital Emergency Care, vol.9, no.4, pp.439-444.
Mantri, J 2009, Research methodology on data envelopment analysis, Universal Press, Florida.
McBurney, DH & White, TL 2009, Research Methods, Cengage Learning, London.McFarlane, A, Williamson, P & Barton, C 2009, ‘The Impact of Traumatic Stressors in Civilian Occupational Settings’, Journal of Public Health Policy, vol.30, no.3, pp.311-327.
Nirel, N, Goldwag, R, Feigenberg, Z, Abadi, D & Halpern, P 2008, ‘Stress, Work Overload, Burnout, and Satisfaction among Paramedics in Israel’, Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, vol. 23, no.6, pp.537-546.Okada, N, Ishii, N, Nakata, M & Nakyama, S 2005, ‘Occupational Stress among Japanese Emergency Medical Technicians: Hyogo Prefecture’, Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, vol. 20, no. 2, pp.115-121.
Robinson, R 2002, ‘Follow-up Study of Health and Stress in Ambulance Services of Victoria, Australia, Victorian Ambulance Crisis Counselling Unit, Report 1, pp.1-54.
Vettor, S & Kosninski, F 2000, ‘Work-stress burnout in emergency medical technicians and the use of early recollections’, Journal of Employment Counselling, vol. 37, no.4, pp.216-228.
APPENDICESAppendix 1: Interview Guide for the RespondentsTell me a little about your work as a paramedic prior to study in Australia?
Probe: How many years working
What was the most positive aspect of working as a paramedic in Saudi Arabia?
What do you see as the main causes of stress for Saudi paramedics?
How do these stressors effect the operation (efficiency) of paramedics?
Probes: days of sick leave?
Probes: morale?
What could the administration or management at the various Emergency Centres do to lower the levels of stress experienced and to deal with their resultant effects?
Has your study in Australia helped with how you can manage stress when you return to paramedic practice?
Apendix 2: Preliminary Data AnalysisApendix 2a: Preliminary Data Analysis – Interview 001Research Question: How does stress affect the operation of paramedics?
Methodological notes Transcript 1 Preliminary Data Analysis
Questions well answered
Respondent does not mainly identify factors directly related to the health unit. More focused on Stress with regard to Saudi Arabia. Interviewer: Tell me a little about your work as a paramedic prior to study in Australia, Like, how many years did you work?
Int 001: Prior to my study in Australia, I worked as a paramedic in Saudi Arabia, which is my native country. I worked as a paramedic based in ambulances within the Saudi capital of Riyadh for seven years.
Interviewer: Do you have any speciality?
Int 001: Within the environment I worked, we normally responded to minimal emergency cases offering limited services in emergency situations.
Interviewer: What was the most positive aspect of working as a paramedic in Saudi Arabia?
Int 001: The training offered to paramedics in Saudi Arabia remains the most positive aspect of working as a paramedic within the country. This training has significantly improved my working capability as a paramedic and offered me an opportunity to enjoy being a paramedic. Though the job has many challenges, training has significantly improved my capacity to handle the various challenges I face during my working period.
Interviewer: What do you see as the main causes of stress for Saudi paramedics?
Int 001: There are many stressing factors while working as a paramedic in Saudi Arabia. The cities are normally characterized with constant traffic congestions, which prevent paramedics from reaching their destinations quickly. During emergency response like ambulances, failure to reach patients in time could be seen as inefficiency of paramedics. The delays resulting from traffic congestion stresses paramedics greatly. Another stressing factor, applying to accident scenes, is the presence of crowds of people on accident scenes. These individuals make it difficult for paramedics to reach the people requiring medical assistance.
Interviewer: How do these stressors effect the operation (efficiency) of paramedics? What effect do they have on your morale and sick leave days?
Int 001: When paramedics encounter these stressing factors, pressure normally increases on their side in offering sufficient services. Delays caused by traffic congestion, could reduce the time available for paramedics to attend to emergency calls. This might mean the paramedics work quickly and efficiency of their services could become compromised. Working under strict time deadlines within the profession becomes dangerous and the paramedics become prone to errors. The morale of paramedics working under these circumstances becomes immensely reduced because of the pressure and limited time available for attending patient. This remains so because paramedics remain aware of consequences which might follow erroneous operation. The paramedics can be held responsible if patient suffer damage as a result of delayed response.
Interviewer: What could the administration or management at the various Emergency Centers do to lower the levels of stress experienced and to deal with their resultant effects?
Int 001: The administration at various emergency centers should seek to change the methods applied in estimating the time required to make an emergency call response. Consideration should be undertaken based on various regions in order to cater for delays resulting from traffic congestion within city roads. The administration should seek to establish a government sponsored program aimed at informing the population about the necessary steps to take in accident scenes. With increased knowledge, people would not crowd around accident scenes in order to see paramedics perform their duties.
Interviewer: Has your study in Australia helped with how you can manage stress when you return to paramedic practice?
Int 001: Studying in Australia has offered me with efficient information regarding management of the stressing factors, upon returning to paramedic practice. The study has significantly improved my capacity to remain focused on delivering essential services and effectively minimizing the influence of external factors like crowds. The study has significantly enhanced my understanding that crowds must always be there as they are the people who normally call for assistance under these situation. This study has also enlightened me with the knowledge that these factors are also available in other counties, and their management could surmount to successful paramedic career.
Has previous paramedic experience before current study
No specialization
Stress among paramedics
External factors
Limited time to meet strict deadlines.
Increased workload and fatigue
Reduced morale and motivation to work
Role of the administration in reducing stress levels
Effective communication channel as a possible solution.
Public Education
Paramedic study in Australia is beneficial in reducing stress levels among paramedics.
Apendix 2b: Preliminary Data Analysis – Interview 002Research Question: How does stress affect the operation of paramedics?
Methodological notes Transcript 1 Preliminary Data Analysis
Questions well answered
Relevant answers given
Respondent attentive and keen on answering all questions
Interviewer: Tell me a little about your work as a paramedic prior to study in Australia, Like, how many years did you work?
Int 002: I have been working as a paramedic for five years now; this will be my sixth year.
Interviewer: Do you have any speciality?
Int 002: No I do not have any special training I am just a general paramedic.
Interviewer: What was the most positive aspect of working as a paramedic in Saudi Arabia?
Int 002: I could say the most positive aspect of working as a paramedic in Saudi Arabia is the fact that I have to handle many people who are critically sick. Most people in Saudi Arabia cannot get access to medical care. The people are often desperate to get medical attention. Being able to efficiently serve people who are so desperately in need of medical care is positive aspect.
Additionally, and contrary to what people might think there is adequate equipment to be used by paramedics in Saudi Arabia. Most people often think that there is lack of equipment in Saudi Arabia but this is not the case. As a matter of fact, there is high class equipment available for use. This is a very positive aspect when working as a paramedic in Saudi Arabia as I have all the equipment I need at my disposal.
Interviewer: What do you see as the main causes of stress for Saudi paramedics?
Int 002: There are various causes of stress for paramedics in Saudi Arabia, and none of them can be pin pointed as being the main cause. Attending to emergency cases that involve issues like accidents or terrorist/ violent attacks, whereby, the patients are in too much agony and pain is a real stress factor for many paramedics in Saudi Arabia. There are also cases of patients’ deaths which paramedics have to deal with. Such deaths occur regularly if not daily. It particularly becomes stressful when they have to break such bad news to the family and friends of the deceased.
Interviewer: How do these stressors effect the operation (efficiency) of paramedics? What effect do they have on your morale and sick leave days?
Int 002: These stressors have an impact on the paramedics in that they often extend the days of sick leave as they need time to deal with the stress. Stress is detrimental to the human body and it leads to increase in blood pressure. It also leads to decrease in the immune system and hence the paramedics can develop a weakness in their natural ability to fight bacteria and viruses. This leads to occurrence of sickness and they have more days of sick leave.
Interviewer: Any effect on ones morale?
Int 002: Oh! That? Stress definitely leads to low morale especially stress caused by death since the paramedics consider themselves as being failures when patients die under their care.
Interviewer: What could the administration or management at the various Emergency Centres do to lower the levels of stress experienced and to deal with their resultant effects?
Int 002: The administration can come up with employee assistance programs which can make counsellors and other specialists accessible for the employees. These specialists can assist the paramedics in the management of their stress. They can also provide debriefing sessions for the paramedics in cases of violence or traumatic events
Interviewer: Has your study in Australia helped with how you can manage stress when you return to paramedic practice?
Int 002: Yes, my study in Australia has really been of great help. I will surely apply what I have learned in Australia when I return to Saudi Arabia, and I am sure I will be able to manage any stress that I will encounter there.
Prior 5 years working experience
No specialization
Service to others and self satisfaction
Facilities and equipment available for efficient operation.
Stress factors
Witnessing the Intense pain and death of patients during emergency cases identified as major stress factors.
Impact of stress on the health of the paramedic results into extended sick leave days.
Reduced morale and encouragement
Role of the administration in reducing stress levels
Counselling and debriefing of paramedics for stress management
Public Education
Paramedic study in Australia is beneficial in stress management.
Apendix 2c: Preliminary Data Analysis – Interview 003Research Question: How does stress affect the operation of paramedics?
Methodological notes Transcript 1 Preliminary Data Analysis
Questions well answered
Relevant answers given
Question well and deeply answered
Answer too brief: More information was necessary
Interviewer: Tell me a little about your work as a paramedic prior to study in Australia?
Int 003: Generally, the work involved a 24hour system of emergency response. Each day would come with its own challenges, and the need to do a good job always imposed a lot of pressure on our service delivery as paramedics. Besides, working in Saudi Arabia meant that we had to go an extra mile to meet the best expectation of every patient and majority of them would complain even for very minor issues simply because they felt that they deserved more attention than other patients. Anyway, the whole experience of working as a paramedic prior to studying in Australia was an eye opener to purse the roots of higher training so as to enhance my professional performance as a paramedic.
Int 003: I have worked as a paramedic for 4½yrs
Interviewer: Do you have any speciality?
Int 003: Not really, just been involved in general paramedical practice.
Interviewer: What was the most positive aspect of working as a paramedic in Saudi Arabia?
Int 003: Despite the many challenges, the most important aspect of the whole experience revolves around the fact that our paramedic services saved hundreds of lives. Working in Saudi Arabia was also a great source of inspiration seeing people appreciating our work and encouraging us to continue helping the society in providing healthcare emergency response.
Interviewer: What do you see as the main causes of stress for Saudi paramedics?
Int 003: The main causes of stress included overwhelming workload due to understaffing. On the other hand, the society has become excessively concerned with the issues of patients rights and ethical practice. Any slight mistake would be blown out of proportion in trying to qualify it as a matter of professional negligence or malpractice. While this remained the biggest cause of stress, withdrawing one’s services was not an option especially when bound by the moral obligation to save life, alleviate suffering and promote good health.
Interviewer: How do these stressors effect the operation (efficiency) of paramedics? What effect do they have on your morale and sick leave days?
Int 003: Owing to the fact that we work longer hours almost 7days a week, most of us often develop fatigue and burnout. This reduces our productivity and sometimes sick leaves are inevitable when one of us is worn down by fatigue and burnout. Typically, the sick leaves may last for even one week or two depending on the magnitude of psychological breakdown.
Threats of malpractice claims also demoralize some paramedics. Personally, this has often discouraged me from taking initiative to help a patient while off duty because of no proper legal protection accorded to use out of the ordinary course of duty. If anything goes wrong, I would be held personally liable. Furthermore, we find it necessary to make the best of our free time to socialize with family and friends and jut avoid anything to do with normal paramedics duties because this in the only time we have to rest and relieve a whole week’s work related stress.
Interviewer: What could the administration or management at the various Emergency Centers do to lower the levels of