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Typographic book design
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Typography is viewed by many typographers as a craft that has a long history dating its origin from the times ancient currency was made. Some of the elements found in this type of craft are older than the first writing systems and even civilization. During time, different typographic designs have been invented and the basic elements of the design enhanced to the typographic designs we know today.
Typographic book design was introduced in Italy from Germany as a style where books were printed with movable types. The Renaissance was a period when the Italian printers reinvented the whole design of a book including the page layout, illustration and ornaments. Johannes de Spira. Erhard Ratdolt, Nicolas Jenson and Francesco da Bolgna are some of the pioneers in typographic book design during the Renaissance in Italy. Humanism was an intellectual movement that promoted typography in Italy during the Renaissance period. The humanists had the belief that this type of writing could offer educational advantages for one to lead a moral and effective life. In the attempt to understand this powerful style, scholarships were offered to those who wished to study this type of book design to enrich their lives. Most elites hired humanists to teach their children how to write elegantly and classical morality.
In the 15th century, the popes were convinced by the humanists that it was important for them to learn this new art of writing so as to portray the popes as learned and powerful in the eyes of the people. During the Renaissance period, sacred texts were well decorated in elegance f the script, binding and illumination.
The Italian Renaissance became less common due to the introduction of the Sack of Rome in the year 1427. As a result, the culture of the Italian Renaissance was moved to France where it was well embraced due to the support awarded by Francis1. He provided support to authors, humanists and visual artists. Despite the political instability in France, scholarships were provided to educate people in the school of book design. Printers produced books with fine print which are simple, have a beautiful typography and remarkable legibility and elegant ornamentation. This eliminated bully gothic typography and clustered page layouts giving way to a new and lighter style. Henri Estienne, Simon de Colines, Claude Garamond and Geoffroy Tory are among the leaders in typographic book design in France. Due to the efforts of these leaders, Lyons and Basel because centres where typographic book designs were taught.
Conflicts that erupted between the French troops and the church wrecked havoc causing a massacre which resulted to decades of war that ended French typography. Just as the innovative designs of book typography were passed to Italy from German and from Italy to France, they were passed from France to other countries including the cities of Amsterdam and Antwerp.
In conclusion, the Renaissance period was a time of great influx in Europe. During this period, knowledge was important and thus book typography was enhanced by different invention. Book covers and page layouts were revolutionized to be more legible, less bulky and more beautiful. This was by incorporating modern writing styles as well as ornamentation to give the book an aesthetic appeal. Typographic book design was passed from Germany to Italy, from Italy to France and finally from France to other low countries in Europe.
Types of stress
Literature Review
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Introduction
One of the key features of the modern day life is the multiplicity of deadlines, hassles, demands and frustrations. This has triggered an increase, in one of the most common conditions for many people, known as stress. Stress has become so commonplace for many people that it has evolved into a way of life.
Definitions
Various definitions of stress have been advanced by varied scholars. However, there seems to be a general consensus as to the definitions that outline stress as the reaction of the body to variations that necessitate a response or adjustment (Ortega, 2000). In such instances, the body makes emotional, physical and mental responses as a response to the variations. It may also be defined as a normal physical stress of the body to events that make an individual feel upset, or threaten his or her balance in some way (Maxwell & Narag, 2006). In instances where an individual senses danger whether imaginary or real, the defense system of the body kick into high gear in a speedy and automatic process that is commonly referred to as stress response or fight-or-flight reaction (Maxwell & Narag, 2006).
Types of stress
There exist two categories of stress including acute or short-term stress and chronic or long term stress. Acute stress refers to the body’s immediate or instant response to a situation that is dangerous and demanding (Weiss, 2012). An individual’s level of stress depends on the intensity of stress, the duration of time in which it lasts, as well as how the individual copes with the situation. More often than not, the body recovers speedily from short-term stress. However, acute stress may result in a number of complications in cases where it happens one too many times or where the body does not have an opportunity to recover (Weissman, et al 1996). This is especially for individuals who have heart problems, where stress would trigger a heart attack or even an abnormal heartbeat (arrhythmia). On the other hand, chronic or long-term stress results from stressful events or situations that last over a long time. This may include dealing with a chronic or persistent disease or difficult job. In cases where an individual has a health problem, stress would worsen it (Weissman, et al 1996).
Positive effects of stress
As much as there is a general consensus as to the negative aspects that come with stress, it also comes with some positive or desirable effects. In instances where it comes in small doses, stress may help an individual to perform under pressure, as well as motivate him to perform to his level best. In fact, research has shown that stress responses help an individual to rise and meet challenges coming in his or her way (Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 1999). It is what keeps an individual on his toes during presentations at work. Scholars opine that it sharpens an individual’s concentration and focus in cases where he is attempting to surmount challenging activities. In some instances, it may even be responsible for pushing an individual to make the right or appropriate decision (Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 1999). For example, research has shown that students are driven to study for exams when stressed, rather than do other activities that may be more exciting than studying.
In addition, stress response has been seen as the body’s way of defending or protecting an individual. In cases where an individual is working properly, stress responses help him or her to concentrate or stay focused, alert and energetic (Weiss, 2012). In case of emergencies, stress can save an individual’s life by giving him or her extra strength to protect oneself. As stated, stress is the way through which the body responds to a certain demand (Albright et al, 2007). This may emanate from desirable or undesirable experiences. In instances where people are stressed by something that they are experiencing or going through, their bodies respond by releasing certain chemicals into the individual’s blood system (Tu, et al, 2005). These chemicals are said to enhance the strength and energy of individuals, which would come in handy especially in cases where individuals have to protect themselves from physical danger. This is what pushes an individual to slam on brakes so as to prevent an accident. (Albright et al, 2007)
Negative effects of stress
The negative effects of stress come as more pronounced or common. As much as the chemical released into an individual’s bloodstream are helpful in enhancing concentration, focus and alertness, the body and mind would pay a hefty price in cases where an individual is always running on emergency mode (Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 1999). In cases where the level of stress goes beyond a certain point, it ceases to be helpful and results in an extensive damage of an individual’s health, productivity, mood, relationship, as well as quality of life (Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 1999).
The negative effects of stress can be seen in the varied symptoms that an individual would exhibit including, a rapid heartbeat, fast breathing, back pain, stiff neck or tight shoulders, excessive sweating as well as sweaty palms. In addition, it may be seen in the form of gastrointestinal problems such as diarrhea, nausea and stomach upset (Thompson, & Kloos, 2009).
One of the most adverse effects of stress is on an individual’s immune system. Persistent or constant stress may increase the likelihood of getting sick. This is especially in cases where an individual has a chronic health condition such as AIDs (Weiss, 2012).
In addition, stress weighs heavily on the heart. Stress has always been linked to abnormal heartbeat, high blood pressure, the hardening of arteries (atherosclerosis), and blood clots (Thompson, & Kloos, 2009). In addition, it is linked to serious conditions such as heart failure, heart attack and coronary artery disease. Stress may lead to constant tension that results to shoulder, neck, and low back pain (Thompson, & Kloos, 2009).
Moreover, it has adverse effects on the gastrointestinal system. In cases where an individual has gastroesophageal reflux disease, irritable bowel syndrome or peptic ulcer disease, stress may worsen the symptoms. Moreover, stress affects the reproductive organs in a negative manner, resulting in erection problems, low fertility, painful menstrual periods, as well as complications during pregnancy (Thompson, & Kloos, 2009).
Causes of stress
There exist varied causes of stress ranging from physical things such as the fear of dangerous things, to emotional (such as the fear of being sacked or losing a job or one’s family) or psychological problems (Ortega, 2000). The identification of the things that may be resulting in stress is usually the initial step in identifying the appropriate way of dealing with stress. Some of the most common risk factors or causes of stress include the following (Rohleder et al, 2004).
Internal stress – this is a situation where an individual makes himself stressed. An individual be worrying for no reason at all or about things that he or she cannot do control. An individual would be worried about things that he or she cannot manage or control, or even put himself in situations that he knows will cause him stress. Some individuals are addicted to a tense and hurried lifestyle that comes as a result of being stressed (Rohleder et al, 2004). They end up looking for stressful situations and are stressed about things that should not be stressful.
Survival stress – this is what is commonly known as flight or fight stress. It is a common response or reaction to danger in all animals and people (Breslau et al 1997). In cases where an individual is afraid that something may physically hurt him or her, the body responds by releasing a burst of energy so as to enhance his ability to survive the hazardous situation (fight), or even run away from it altogether (flight). This is known as survival stress (Breslau et al 1997).
Environmental stress, on the other hand, refers to an individual’s response to the things around him that may cause stress. These may include noise, pressure from family and work, noise or crowding (Young, & Korszun, 1999). Frustrations may also cause stress as they are states of dissatisfaction or insecurity that emanate from unfulfilled needs or unresolved problems. Conflicts may also cause stress in cases where the needs and demands are incompatible. For example, an individual may be torn between spending time with the family and working late to earn a living for the family (Young, & Korszun, 1999).
Fatigue and overwork may also cause stress. This category of stress builds up over a certain period and may weigh heavily on the person. This may result from working too much or even carrying out duties that are too difficult at home or in the workplace. It may also result from the inability to manage his time, or even relax and rest. This may be arguably the hardest category of stress to avoid, especially considering that many people think that it is out of their control (Young, & Korszun, 1999).
Gender Differences in stress levels
Studies have shown that women are twice as likely to develop stress and depression as men, irrespective of their nationality, ethnicity and culture (Gifford, 2005). Diagnosable stress and depressive disorders are unusually common in women, who incorporate lifetime prevalence for primary depressive disorders of 21.3% as compared to 12.7% for men. It is worth noting, however, that no variable can single-handedly account for variations in depression across genders (Gifford, 2005). Nevertheless, two reasons are mainly isolated as the main contributors of the disparity. First, it is acknowledged that women enjoy less status and power than men in quite a large number of societies, in which case they undergo certain traumas more often than men (Zahn-Waxler, 2000). In addition, they undergo increased chronic strains such as lack of respect, harassment, constrained choices and poverty than men. Second, even in cases where men and women undergo similar stressors, there are variations in their biological responses to stressors, coping styles and self concepts, in which case women stand higher chances of becoming stressed than men (Zahn-Waxler, 2000).
Measuring stress
Varied systems have been used in measuring stress. These include psychological questionnaires, physiological measures, and autonomic measures. In physiological measures, research shows that the interpretation of an event or situation as stressful triggers the activation of HPA (hypothalamic pituitary adrenal) axis, which ultimately leads to the secretion of catecholamines and cortisol in human beings (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995). In essence, cortisol and catecholamines, which are the end products of the HPA activation, may be measured in saliva, urine and blood. Autonomic measures include blood pressure, vagal tone and salivary alpha-amylase (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995).
References
Weiss, DS 2012. Journal of Traumatic Stress. International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies
Thompson, K. & Kloos, B., (2009). “Class, Ethnic, and Gender Differences in Coping from Traumatic Stress as a Result of Hurricane Katrina. SCRA Biennial
Maxwell, S. & Narag, R. E., (2006) “Coping With Stressful Life Events: Gender Differences Among Filipino Adolescents” American Society of Criminology (ASC)
Gifford, D. M. , (2005.) “The Relative Importance of Stressful Life Events Versus Chronic Stress in Predicting Adolescent Depression”. American Sociological Association.
Albright, K. , Fortney, J. C., Adams, S. J., Dong, F. and Xu, S. , (2007). “The Role of Social Support and Stressful Life Events in the Effectiveness of Collaborative Care for Depression: A Rural-Urban Comparison” American Sociological Association
Weissman, M.M., Bland, R.C., Canino, G.J., Faravelli, C., Greenwald, S., Hwu, H.-G., Joyce, P.R., Karam, E.G., Lee, C.-K., Lellouch, J., Lepine, J.- P., Newman, S.C., Rubio-Stipc, M., Wells, E., Wickramaratne, P.J., Wittchen, H.-U., & Yeh, E.- K. (1996). Cross-national epidemiology of major depression and bipolar disorder. Journal of the American Medical Association
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C. (1999). Explaining the gender difference in depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Gender differences in coping with depression across the lifespan. Depression
Young, E., & Korszun, A. (1999). Women, stress, and depression: Sex differences in hypothalamic-pituitary- adrenal axis regulation. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Breslau, N., Davis, G.C., Andreski, P., Peterson, E.L., & Schultz, L. (1997). Sex differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry
Zahn-Waxler, C. (2000). The development of empathy, guilt, and internalization of distress: Implications for gender differences in internalizing and externalizing problems. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Tu, MT, Lupien, SJ, & Walker, CD (2005). Measuring Stress responses in postpartum mothers: Perspectives from studies in human and animal populations. Stress
Ortega AN, Rosenheck R (2000) Posttraumatic stress disorder among Hispanic Vietnam veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry
Rohleder, N., Nater, U. M., Wolf, JM., Ehlert, U., Kirschbaum, C. (2004). Psychosocial Stress-induced activation of Salivary alpha-amylase: An indicator of Sympathetic activity? Ann New York Academy of Science
Types of renewable energy South Africa is investing on
Renewable energy
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Introduction
Pressure to develop sustainable sources of renewable energy is on the rise. South Africa is at the forefront of developing and perfecting several forms of renewable energy (EDKIN 2010). This is due to the increasing cost of fossil fuel resulting in increased energy costs as well as the rapidly changing climatic conditions. On continents like Africa the La-Nino weather condition is resulting in reduced amounts of Rainfall (Nicolson 2000). Global warming is also resulting in the melt down of glacial ice, which could result in rivers running dry.
Types of renewable energy South Africa is investing on
Presently the number of renewable energy sources is limited. Wind, Solar, Waves and Bio fuels are among the most common types of renewable energy (Ferry 2012). While performing the research and before investing it’s also important to consider their impact on the environment. With the GHGP (Green House Gas Protocol) affecting many countries, it’s important to abide by their guidelines to avoid pollution related fines (GHGP 2001).
Solar energy
South Africa launched a 75MW solar energy plant in Kalkbult on September 2013. There is also several additional solar energy plants expected to be in operation in 2014 and 2015 (Messerschmidt 2008). Solar energy is the most reliable source of renewable energy on our plant but energy produced from solar panels is presently low. This form of energy production requires additional research and improvements made to boost energy production from the solar panels (Goffman 2008).
Wind energy
Large wind turbine Farms have become a common sight in many countries which have strong winds. They can be erected inland, on coastlines or out at sea. South Africa’s commercial wind energy farms are still under developed, with less than 50 wind turbines in operation. They produce a combined 70 MW of energy. There is a forth farm under construction which will have 50 wind turbines producing 2KW of power each, thus resulting in a major boost in this sector (Wulfers 2013). But besides the commercial producers it has been noted that the private sector is also investing heavily on small scale wind turbines (Querejazu 2012). These help reduce the cost of energy as well as the pressure placed on the energy grid.
Bio energy and fuels
With the global fossil fuels deposits dwindling, the need to locate alternative energy fuels is the top priority. South Africa is placing more emphasis on bio gas production as opposed to oil producing plants. Statistics show that Biogas remains relatively unknown and unused in South Africa with less 100 bio gas digesters recorded (BSA 2010). Despite the biogas plants are small and can easily be afforded by most household most native South African families rely on coal and firewood as a primary source of energy, the requirement to provide a cleaner and more sustainable source of energy is high (Balmer 2007).
In addition to these there are several other forms of energy productions and techniques but the majority remain under developed. They require more research and development before being used both in the private or commercial sectors (Fridlay 2010).
References
Ashden. 2013 Sustainable solutions, Better Living, retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.ashden.org/” http://www.ashden.org/ on 4-1-2014.
Baker & McKenzie. 2013 The Future for Clean Energy in Africa, Clean energy pipeline.
Balmer M. 2007 Household coal use in an urban township in South Africa, Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, Vol 18 No 3.
Bettinger M, Finel B. I, Mesnikoff A, Prentice-Dunn J, and Ross L. 2010 Ending out Dependence on Oil, American Security Project, Sierra Club.
BSA. 2010 Biogas South Africa, retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.biogassa.co.za/” http://www.biogassa.co.za/ on 4-1-2014.
CT. 2008, Small-Scale Wind Energy Policy Insights and Practical Guidance, Carbon Trust.
DESA. ND Renewable Energy, Energy Department Republic of South Africa, retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.energy.gov.za/files/renewables_frame.html” http://www.energy.gov.za/files/renewables_frame.html on 2-1 – 2014.
Edkins M, Marquard A & Winkler H. 2010 South Africa’s renewable energy policy roadmaps, Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town.
Ferry R & Monoian E. 2012 A Field Guide to Renewable Energy Technologies, Land Art Generator Innovative.
Fridlay D. 2010 Nine Challenges of Alternative Energy, the Post Carbon Reader Series: Energy.
GHGP. 2001 A Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard, Greenhouse Gas Protocol.
Goffman E. 2008 Why Not the Sun? Advantages of and Problems with Solar Energy, ProQuest Discovery Guides.
IEA. 2013 World Energy Outlook 2013 Factsheet: How Will Global Energy Markets Evolve To 2035? International Energy Agency.
Messerschmidt L.J. 2008 A solar energy plan for South Africa, Energize.
Nicolson S.E & SELATO J.C. 2000 The Influence of La Nina on African Rainfall, International Journal of Climatology, Int. J. Climatol. 20: 1761–177.
Querejazu D. 2012 Small Scale Wind Power for Homes, Farms and Communities, Environmental and Energy Studies Institute.
Wulfers M. 2013 Siemens wins 100 MW wind power order from South Africa, retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.siemens.com/press/en/feature/2013/energy/2013-05-sere-wind.php%20on%202-1-2014” http://www.siemens.com/press/en/feature/2013/energy/2013-05-sere-wind.php on 2-1-2014.