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History of Telstra
History of Telstra
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History and Successes of Telstra
Introduction
The Australian telecommunication market is currently shared between three main players with the key player being Telstra, an Australian premier telecommunication company with perhaps one of the richest history in light of telecommunications companies in the world. Even though there is a paucity of information touching on the formation of the Telstra, it is indubitable that there are several factors that the role played in formation of the company; factors that if complied proficiently, gives a clear picture of the history of the Telstra. This papers aims at compiling events and activities in Australian telecommunication sector that define its development and successes of the company.
Background of Telstra
As indicated in the Telstra website, the history of Telstra can be traced back to 1901 when the Post Masters General department was created in Australia following the handing of powers to the commonwealth Government in handling Posts and Telegraphs by the constitution in a move that ended up creating a monopoly with regards to telecommunication. Initially, handling of posts and telegraphs was the responsibility of separate and distinctive colonial departments. Afterwards, as reported by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (1988), there was considerable growth in the telecommunication sector that saw the establishment of radio stations like the Marconi Radio System. Even though, the growth in telecommunications was interrupted by the World War 1, the period witnessed a lot of technological advancements; the war led to a spontaneous growth of wireless stations all over Australia, particularly, along the coastline. Notably, longline interstate trunk services of Australia were established during in the period after the end of World War I (1920s). In essence, the modernization of Australia’s telegraphy and telephony occurred during this period with the implementation of automatic exchanges, thanks to the then Postmaster General, H. P. Brown, who inspired most of these changes (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1988).
It worth noting that all this time there was no wireless telephony in Australia. However, 1992 was marked with the signing of agreements for wireless telephony to be used in the transmission of national messages to Australian people. The then prime minister of Australia, Billy Hughes, makes it in history as the first prime minister of Australia to transmit his speech across Australia. Later, broadcasting stations would be allowed to transmit programs in Australia in a move that was not warmly welcomed by Australians who preferred radio transmission to television transmission. In 1924, the Wireless Telegraphy Act was signed into law and this paved way to the establishment of the Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1988).
Until the 1940s, there was no legislation to regulate Australia’s international telecommunication. However, 1946 saw that enactment of the Overseas Telecommunications Act of 1946 that sought to establish, maintain and develop public telecommunication services between Australia and other countries, its external territories and ships in the sea (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1984). As a provision in the Act, The Overseas Telecommunications Commission of Australia (OTC) was to be formed to serve as a custodian of the Overseas Telecommunications Act. The OTC was given special instructions by the Commonwealth Government to ensure its services were as cheap as possible. This commission was responsible to the Commonwealth parliament through the Minister of Communication and a report about its activities was supposed to be availed to the parliament in October every year (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1984). In the same year, the proceedings in Australian parliament were broadcasted for the first time. Again, the first commercial television was established, thanks to the 1956 Olympics that was overly instrumental in the establishment of this television.
In 1975, the Telecommunications Act of 1975 was signed into law leading to the separation of Telecommunications from postal functions (Telstra, 2012; Grant, 2004). The law created the Australian Telecommunications Commission, trading internationally and locally as Telecom, whose specific function was to regulate Australia internal telecommunication services. Telecom was supposed to take charge of installing, maintaining and operating domestic telecommunications infrastructure besides being the sole issuer rights to third parties wanting to install any infrastructure that was directly linked to domestic telecommunication (Grant, 2004; Telstra, 2012). As Grant (2004) asserts, the separation of telecommunication and postal functions by the Australian Telecommunication Act also led to the creation of Australian Postal Commission (Australia Post) that was supposed to handle postal duties. Anecdotally, during this time, the availability of telephone in Australia was one telephone to ten people. Telecom grew remarkably over the years and in 1981, it launched the first Australian mobile network called the Public Automatic Mobile Telephone System (PAMTS). In its basic form, PAMTS was a car phone whose prominence grew spontaneously in Australia and was a brilliant innovation with regards to the plight of travelling workers. This phone that fully automated though not cellular was first launched in Melbourne followed with Sydney before its use spread to other parts of Australia.
Both OTC and Telecom were incorporated into public companies in 1988 and 1989 respectively. The incorporation of OTC was occasioned by the enactment of the Overseas Telecommunication Act of 1988 while the corporation of Telecom came as a result of the amendment of the Australian Telecommunications Corporation Act in 1989 (which renamed it to Australian Telecommunication Corporations) (Campbell, 2008) even though it continued to trade are telecom in Australia (Telstra, 2012). Following the corporation of Telecom, the functions of Telecom Corporation as highlighted in the act was majorly to supply telecommunication services within Australia as well act, on behalf of Australia, in businesses or activities relating to telecommunication internationally (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1984). Also notable is the fact that the Telecommunications Act of 1989 was aimed at creating a competitive environment in the telecommunication sector of Australia. In this regard, a telecommunication regulator, AUSTEL, was also established and served with responsibilities that ranged from technical regulation, formulate policies meant to effectively control monopoly and competitive services in the Australian telecommunication sector, protection consumers from extortions and other fraudulent business practices.
In 1991 telecom was incorporated into a limited liability company even though it retained the name “Telecom”. Telecom was later renamed Telstra in 1993; a name that was only used for international business deals even though locally it was still using telecom (Telstra, 2012) even though in 1995 the name telecom was dropped by Telstra hence the name Telstra could now be used both in international business and local business.
Telstra’s Current Successes
As a telecommunication company, Telstra has undergone massive developments since historical times. These have greatly prepared it to face the future challenges with ease. Even though competition in the telecommunication sector in Australia has become still with the entrance of international companies like Vodafone into the Australian voice and data market, Telstra is still Australia’s the main telecommunication company commanding a considerable share of the telecommunication market. The company was commanding a remarkable 42% of the telecommunications market share in Australia followed by Optus and VHA with 31% and 27% respectively (ACMA, 2011). This makes it the dominant company and undoubtedly, although indirectly, it enjoys the benefits associates with monopoly. This is a great development especially considering that other companies are equally competitive (Desai, 2006).
Another area of success includes diversification of its products and services. Currently it is no longer just offering “telegraph and telephony services”. The company offers a wide range of products that include; fixed and mobile services, mobile networks, wholesale and paid television among other services (Telstra, 2012). Some media companies in Australia report that the company was recently rebranded in what is termed as the greatest change ever since Telecom was renamed Telstra (Sandev, 2011). Product diversification has enabled it to not only survive in the current economy, but to also thrive and maintain the topmost position in the market. In his research, Grant (2004) ascertains that market shock expose current companies to various economic threats. Inherent fluctuations compromise the ability of the respective companies to maintain upward growth. Product diversification cushions the company against any destructive market shocks and fluctuations.
Another area of success that the company has done well pertains to mainstreaming sustainability in its practices. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (1988) ascertains that successful companies are increasingly making sustainability a mainstream factor. In particular, Telstra acknowledges the impact of global warming and environmental protection. Some of the practical steps that it has undertaken to address these concerns include pursuing energy consumption strategies and engaging actively in corporate social responsibility through initiatives such as community capacity building. In this regard, the company provides the community with education programs regarding environmental conservation and management (Telstra, 2012). This is attained through idyllic strategic planning.
Perhaps the most important success area of Telstra entails the incorporation of ICT in its operations. This according to Grant (2004) has enables the company to inculcate lean practices in its operations. To a great extent, it ensures efficiency and effectiveness in service delivery. It also minimizes the relative wastes and aids in saving important natural resources. In a world that is being faced with the problem of diminishing natural resources, natural resource conservation should be at the core of all companies (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1984). Seemingly, this contributes significantly to sustainable living. Besides, pursuit of sustainability has given the company a competitive edge against its competitors. This is because the underlying principles are in line with the modern day business expectations.
In sum, Telstra Company has undergone significant developments since its inception in the early 1900s. Its strong economic base has enabled it to face wide ranging economic challenges with ease. As it has come out from the study, the first greatest success of Telstra is its ability to maintain market leadership even after privatization. Also, diversification of its products is a significant development. Also worth mentioning is the mainstreaming of green practices in its operations. Finally, development of its ICT sector has ensured efficiency in production and service delivery.
Reference List
ACMA. (2011). The Australian communications and media market. ACMA Communications report 2010-11, 31-71.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1984. Year Book Australia No. 68, 1984. Australia: Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1988. Year Book Australia, 1988, No. 71. Australia : Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1991. Year Book Australia, 1991 No. 74. Australia: Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Campbell, D. ed. 2008. International Telecommunications Law [2008]. Salzburg: Yorkhill Law Publishers.
Desai, A. V. 2006. India’s telecommunications industry: history, analysis, diagnosis. New Delhi, Sage Publ.
Goldfinch, S., and Wallis, J. 2009. International handbook of public management reform. Cheltenham, Edward Elgar.
Grant, A. ed. 2004. Australian telecommunications regulation: the Communications Law Centre guide. Sydney: University of N.S.W. Press.
Sandev, M. (2011, September 19). Telstra’s Colorful Rebrand Craves Emotional Connection. Bandt. Retrieved from http://www.bandt.com.au/news/top-stories/telstra-s-colourful-rebrand-craves-emotional-conne
Telstra. 2012. About Telstra – History of Telstra. Telstra. Retrieved October 9, 2012, from http://www.telstra.com.au/abouttelstra/company-overview/history/telstra-story/index.htm
QUESTION ONE
QUESTION ONE
President Andrew Jackson is among America’s most controversial presidents. For many, he was a hero who would stand up for the little man and defend democracy, while for others he was an autocratic tyrant who ruthlessly exploited Southern slave labor to build his fortune. The controversies over the two terms that Jackson was president still divide historians who either defend him or see him as one of America’s poorest presidents. The controversial viewpoints discussed all stem from Jackson’s inclusion as a slave owner during his term as President of the United States (Inskeep, 2016).
President Andrew Jackson is among America’s poorest presidents…
The controversy over whether Andrew Jackson should be included on the list of presidents comes from conflicting viewpoints. One school of thought is that he was a magnificent man who defended the rights of the underclass, without racially discriminating against African Americans. This position is promoted by those who try to establish Jackson’s presidential achievements and downplay slavery to emphasize Jackson’s vast ability in facing foreign affairs and his leadership in implementing numerous changes in domestic policy, such as the emergence of a vigorous national bank and policy towards Native Americans.
On the other hand, some consider Jackson one of America’s worst presidents because they believe he abused his power to gain economic wealth at the expense of poor Southern whites and Native Americans. They include Jackson on the list of presidents who, in the words of one historian, “enriched himself by the blood, sweat, and tears of his people”1.
Jackson’s slave college…
In trying to establish whether Jackson should be included on that list of terrible presidents, it is first important to look at his presidency as a whole. The time frame for this discussion is from 1829 until 1837 when Jackson left office in disgrace (Inskeep, 2016). In all of his years as president he was a slave owner (which all presidents were during this era) but, by most historians’ reckoning, wasn’t as racist as some.
For those who attempt to defend President Andrew Jackson, they point to the fact that he was one of the first presidents who realized slavery was economically unsound and would have to be abolished. In 1835, he stated in his annual message to Congress, “slavery is morally wrong,” and called for gradual emancipation that would free slaves with families after they reached age 21. Jackson also banned slavery in the Florida territory and in Washington D.C., where he felt black slaves were already emancipated.
QUESTION TWO
President Zachary Taylor, Millard Filmore, James Pierce, and James Buchanan were among the four presidents who served from 1849 to March 1861. Historians view these men as being inadequate and incompetent. They are weak, vacillating, incapable, and partly responsible for the descent of the nation into the Civil War (Jefferson et al., 1992).
For instance, President Zachary Taylor’s administration was plagued by violence, incompetence, and scandals. Zachary Taylor died when he fell ill on the way back to Washington from his Virginia estate in 1849. He was succeeded by Millard Filmore who served for only sixteen months. Historians point out that Filmore’s administration was marked by scandals and a decline in American armies from the Mexican War to the growing importance of naval power. James Buchanan preceded Filmore who served only two years as president before Abraham Lincoln took office. Historians point out that Buchanan’s presidency is marked by a lack of foreign policy success and failure to deal effectively with slavery and secessionist sentiment during Reconstruction.
Millard Filmore’s presidency is marked by a decline in the nation’s finances, excessive spending, and declining support for the presidency. Millard Filmore was known as a consummate insider as he served as governor of California before becoming secretary of state under President Polk in 1850. He was confirmed by the Senate despite opposition from Southern senators because he had not been a major political figure. Historians note that Filmore “sought to conciliate Southerners with tariff policies that were more favorable to foreign trade than to domestic manufacturing.” Despite being on good terms with Southern senators, Filmore broke with them when he signed the Crédit Mobilier bill which paid bondholders for loans made during the Mexican War.
James Pierce’s presidency is marked by a lack of success as he was blamed for the continuing sectional strife and growing distrust between the North and South. His administration enacted the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise. The Kansas-Nebraska Act allowed settlers in each territory to choose whether to permit slavery in their region. Pierce’s administration attempted to pressure Britain and France into settling their claims for damages from the Mexican War. Unfortunately, he failed to win support from Congress or persuade Europe to compromise on American claims for over $15 million. Historians note that Pierce’s presidency was marred by bad luck and misfortune with several cabinet members dying before completing his term in office.
James Buchanan, on the other hand, has a more sympathetic reputation. Historian David Potter suggests that despite his rather lackluster track record, Buchanan’s attributes may have made him a better president than the aforementioned four men — he was a “good man of peace” who attempted to find compromises to prevent further conflict between North and South. Buchanan was also seen as possessing some wisdom in his later years, and this is what historians believe led to him being elected president again in 1856 as James Pierce’s vice-presidential candidate. Pierce died soon after the inauguration on March 4th, however, and so Buchanan continued in office until March 4th, 1861, when he resigned amidst the ongoing tensions between North and South over slavery.
References
Inskeep, S. (2016). Jacksonland: President Andrew Jackson, Cherokee Chief John Ross, and a Great American Land Grab. Penguin.
Jefferson, T., Lincoln, A., Polk, J. K., Roosevelt, F. D., Grant, U. S., Fillmore, M., … & Hayes, R. B. (1792). Presidents of the United States. Sixth Annual Message (Dec. 2, 1806), in, 1, 1789-1897.
History of Special Education and Laws of I.D.E.A
History of Special Education and Laws of I.D.E.A
Introduction
Special education refers to the kind of education given to students having cognitive, physical, learning, sensory, communication and emotional abilities that deviates from those of the general population. This training is tailored specifically to cater for the individual needs and differences of the disabled students. Special education involves individually planned and systematic monitoring of arranged teaching methods; adapted materials and resources that are designed to assist students with special needs to achieve higher levels of academic achievement. Students with special needs gain a lot from these supplementary educational services being offered to them.
Discussion
Parents whose children were marginalized due to their disabilities formed the first group of people to advocate for quality special education. They formed associations which began making an impact in the 1950s. Their continued lobbying received a substancial boost when laws providing for training of teachers to handle students with hearing difficulties and the mentally retarded were passed (Winzer, 2008). Multiple laws passed in the 1960s authorized the funding of special education programs and the students involved in the program.
The entire special education landscape was changed by the many landmark decisions made by the courts in the early 1970s. The government was made responsible for providing all the resources needed in the special education programs as well as offering training opportunity to students who needed special education (Turnbull, 2005). These decisions were a major milestone in special education history since up to now the state and local institutions contribute 91percent of the funds used in special education while federal governments provide the remaining 9 percent. The 1970s decade had a significant importance to students with special abilities. First and foremost, the Rehabilitation Act passed in 1973 guaranteed civil rights to all individuals with disabilities and it stated that all schools should arrange accommodation facilities for disabled students (Winzer, 2008). Secondly, the Education for the Handicapped Children Act (EHA) also known as the Public Law 94-142 passed in 1975 guaranteed education rights for all children with special abilities. The Public Law 94-142 gave mandate to special education services and programs for children aged between three and twenty one. However, the 1986 law amendments (PL 99-457) changed the Public Law to Education for the Handicapped Children Act (EHA) which mandated the provision of special education services and programs by all states right from birth.
The Public Law 94-142 articulation intended to create awareness on the necessity of improving education accessibility for children with disabilities. It was created as a response to the Congressional concern for the millions of disabled children denied the opportunity to receive knowledge and the few disabled children who had limited access to quality education and therefore lacked the opportunity to obtain appropriate education. The lawsuit brought changes in the mode of understanding and educating learners with disabilities, the process of evaluating the success of special education and provision of security rights for children and their families (Winzer, 2008). It also authorized financial incentives directed towards special education to enable localities and states comply with its implementation. Efforts to help realize the national goals of creating access to education for disabled children compelled the state to make vital amendments.
EHA was subjected to many substantial changes and revisions with its reauthorization in 1990 and 1997. Its name changed to Individual with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). It spawned the delivery of educational services to students with difficulties who had previously been denied access to quality education. Students with abilities got chance to be in schools where they were assigned specially trained teachers who understood their individual needs. IDEA made a provision that all schools offering special education had additional services such as computer assisted technologies for the visually impaired students and interpreters for those with hearing difficulties (Turnbull, 2005). Its main emphasis was the use of Individualized Education Plans (IEP) for students undertaking special education. IEP consisted of all the transition procedures used in identifying employment opportunities as well as after school adult living objectives. They aimed at providing the student with links to available community resources and placing them in jobs. The IEP clearly identified those responsible for carrying out the transition activities.
IDEA supported many Severely Handicapped Institutes during the early 1980s. It played a major role in helping the institutes come up with effective ways that could be used to help the disabled students integrate with their non-disabled friends, classmates and family members. This initiative gave children with disabilities a chance to attend their neighborhood schools where they learnt life skills needed for full and active participation in the society (Turnbull, 2005). IDEA has also laid down vital principles that have helped in guiding families and professionals on how to work together in enhancing educational opportunities for the children with special abilities. It has emphasized on the importance of the parents participation in their children’s learning process. This is evident with the inclusion of parents in developing their children’s Individualized Educational Program (IEP). The IDEA coined in 1997 mandated all schools to report to the parents the educational progress of their children the same way they sent frequent reports of non-disabled children to their parents. This was meant to maintain respectful partnerships between families and schools.
For a long time, IDEA has supported the federal government in the provision of qualified teachers to handle students with disabilities. They have assisted in the training of many professionals specializing in special and early childhood education. These professionals comprises psychologists, therapists, program administrators, classroom teachers and the early intervention staffs who work to help children with special abilities acquire education and better their lives (Turnbull, 2005). In supporting the states and the localities to meet the challenges and pitfalls that they face in implementing the special education programs, they offered finances and all the resources that the various schools lacked.
IDEA played a critical role in preparing students with difficulties to have successful lives when they become adults. This is made possible by the Individualized Transition Plans (ITP). The ITPs provides guidelines on how the students are supposed to adapt to their environments basing on the nature of their disabilities (Winzer, 2008). The survival skills they learn from special schools enable them to try lead normal lives with their friends, families and workmates.
Conclusion
The laws on Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) contributed to the most effective and best-researched strategies and pedagogies for special education teaching. This is because disabled students were not only guaranteed quality education, they were also provided with special attention that met their individual needs.
References
Winzer, M. A. (2008). History of Special Education from Isolation to Integration.
Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
Turnbull, Ron (2005). Exceptional Lives: Special Education in Today’s Schools: Merrill
Prentice Hall. New Jersey.