Recent orders
Non-Government Organisation
Non-Governmental Organisations
Introduction
The term non-governmental organisation (NGO) refers to an organisation that is legally constituted, established by natural or legal persons and operates independently from any government (Donnelly, 2003). In their operations, NGOs do not focus on making profit. In cases where they are partially or fully funded by governments, they maintain their non-governmental status. Precisely, they avoid government influence in their decisions by excluding governmental representatives in their memberships. Often, this term is given to organisations that focus on social, economic and political issues but with no political interests (Goodale, 2008).
There is a huge number of NGOs operating at local, national, regional and international levels. These organisations focus on different but specific social, economic and political issues. This paper examines seven NGOs that operate at an international level focus on issues related to human rights, namely: Amnesty International, Human Rights Foundation, Human Rights Watch, World Organisation Against Torture, Journalists for Human Rights, Centre of Housing Rights and Evictions and Freedom House. The paper analyses the different approaches taken by these organisations to deal with issues related to human rights. Out of these organisations, it has been established that Amnesty International, Centre of Housing Rights and Evictions and Human Rights Watch have had the most influence in terms of both public opinion and government policy on the issue of human rights.
Amnesty International
This is one of the most populous NGOs with over 3 million members globally. It was founded in 1961 in London. The objective of the organisation is to draw attention to abuses of human rights and to compel governments, non-governmental bodies and private individuals to comply with international laws and standards (Amnesty International, 2012). It achieves this by mobilising public opinion to put pressure on individuals, governments and non-governmental organisations that perpetrate or let abuse of human rights to take place. Further, Amnesty International conducts research on abuses of human rights and uses the findings to generate actions that help to prevent grave abuses. Information about human rights abuses is collected from victims, local human rights activists, observing trials, and from the media. Sometimes, the organisation sends officials to countries to make enquiries related to human rights abuses (Amnesty International, 2012).
The organisation also makes sure that justice is accorded to those who are found to be victims of human rights abuse. It protects the rights of prisoners by ensuring that prison conditions meet international human rights standards and ensuring that the prisoners are given prompt and fair trials. It helps to fight impunity from justice systems both at national and international levels. Amnesty International focuses on six key areas namely ending torture, human dignity protection, abolition of the death penalty, and protection of the rights of the rights of children, women, indigenous groups and minorities. This explains the fact that Amnesty International is one of the most influential NGOs in mobilising the public against acts of human rights violence. According to the organisation’s website, Amnesty International (2012), the organisation has the longest history in the field of international human rights. It was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 for its successful campaign against torture in various regions in the world (Lauren, 2011).
Human Rights Foundation
This International NGO is based in New York, USA and was founded in 2005 by Thor Halvorssen (Human Rights Foundation, 2012). Its main objective is to ensure that freedom for all people is preserved and promoted especially in North and South America. It aims at uniting all people regardless of their cultural, ideological or political orientations. The organisation ensures that all people are allowed to speak their thoughts freely. It also ensures that they are given freedom to worship and to join religions of their choices. It promotes the rights of all people to associate freely with those of like mind and to join social groups of their choices, whose intentions are far from engaging in illegal acts. It ensures that all people are given freedom to acquire and dispose properties without undue interference.
Further, Human Rights Foundation promotes the rights of people to enter and leave their own country and to be treated equally under law. According to Human Rights Foundation (2012), the organisation promotes the rights of any citizen to participate in the government of their nation. It promotes freedom of all individuals from coercion or interference in matters of conscience, freedom from slavery, freedom from any kind of torture and freedom from arbitrary detainment. According to the organisation’s website, HRF gathers information mainly by conducting research from the public about human rights abuses. It then engages in campaigns aiming to influence public opinion against acts of abuse of human rights.
Human Rights Watch
This is also an international NGO with headquarters in New York City, the USA and has offices in Washington, Berlin, Brussels, Beirut, Chicago, Johannesburg, Geneva, London, Moscow, Los Angeles, Paris, Tokyo, San Francisco and Toronto. It comprises lawyers, country experts, academics and journalists and operates in more than 90 nations globally (Human Rights Watch, 2011). The organisation was founded in 1978 in America as a private NGO and addressed human rights abuses by the governments of America and the former Soviet Union. It expanded later in 1980s to include Africa Watch, Asia Watch and Middle East Watch and formed the current Human Rights Watch. The organisation opposes violation of basic human rights all over the world. Precisely, it opposes any kind of discrimination that is based on an individual’s sexual orientation, opposes capital punishment and advocates for freedom of the press and religion (Human Rights Watch, 2011).
According to Human Rights Watch (2011), Human Rights Watch conducts research on issues related to human rights abuses and produces reports which are used to draw international attention to the practices. It influences public opinion which helps to pressure governments and other international organisations to act against the perpetrators of human rights abuses. It is therefore one of the most influential organisations on public opinion regarding the issue of human rights. The organisation conducts deep investigations on situations surrounding political suspects and generates adequate coverage both in the local and international media (Human Rights Watch, 2011). In addition, the NGO provides support to writers who are persecuted for their work. The writers are provided with basic needs and financial assistance. Further, the organisation raises international awareness of such individuals who are being silenced for boldly fighting against abuses of human rights. In the past, Human Rights Watch was active in the making of international conventions that banned the use of weapons of mass destruction.
World Organisation Against Torture
This is a coalition of almost 300 local, national regional and international NGOs fighting against human rights abuse. It is the world’s largest network of NGOs that promotes respect for human rights (World Organisation Against Torture, 2009). The group of organisations fights against torture, extrajudicial executions, arbitrary detention and forced disappearances. The network has a ‘Prevention of Torture’ programme which enables the members to report and prevent any forms of torture through effective interaction with United Nations (UN) human rights mechanisms. The members provide reports to the committee of this programme, which are then submitted to the UN committees and used as tool for action. Members of local NGOs are also included in the committee that makes reports for this programme especially on specialised issues such as children and women torture (World Organisation Against Torture, 2009).
The programme also provides support for organisations and individuals who wish to challenge torture acts in international legal forums. It establishes effective complaint mechanisms which help in the protection of victims or individuals under threat, obtaining compensation and reparations for victims of torture and pressuring governments and nongovernmental organisations to end impunity in certain cases and make changes in state practices and legislations that lead to violations of human rights. The network of organisations increases awareness of people on human rights abuses by publishing practical guides on local, regional and international conventional mechanisms related to torture. It also submits research reports on acts of torture of women and children to the UN human rights mechanisms and publishes such issues to increase public awareness (World Organisation Against Torture, 2009).
Journalists for Human Rights
This is an international media development organisation headquartered in Toronto, Canada and has offices in Monrovia, Liberia; Kinshasa, DR Congo and Freetown, Sierra Leone (Journalists for Human Rights, 2009). It also has representatives in the UK and in the US. It was founded in 2002 and has established human rights programmes within 16 African countries. The main objective of this NGO is to make everyone aware of their rights and the acts that constitute violation of those rights. The mission of this NGO states that this is the first and the most important step in ending human rights abuses. It therefore informs people in all countries about human rights and mobilises media to spread awareness of human rights. It has established awareness programmes for human rights through local media partners. In Africa, such programmes are estimated to reach over 20 million people every week. Further, the organisation empowers minorities and marginalised groups to stand up for their rights, to speak out about cases of abuse and to protect themselves from rights abuses. The NGO also trains journalists on matters related to human rights, and it has trained over 2000 of them and helped to produce more than 3000 stories related to human rights issues in Africa alone (Journalists for Human Rights, 2009).
Centre of Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE)
This is international human rights NGO based Geneva, with many more offices in the US, Brazil, Ghana, Switzerland, Sri Lanka, South Africa and Cambodia. The organisation was established in 1994 and has been carrying out its work through three main regional programmes in America, Asia and Africa (COHRE, 2007). Through these programmes, this organisation has joined forces with local communities, NGOs and committed professionals to ensure that all people enjoy housing rights. It has also five thematic programmes focusing on housing and land restitution, social, cultural and economic rights of all people, forced evictions, women and their housing rights, and rights to clean water and sanitation. Precisely, the main objective of COHRE is to make sure that all people fully enjoy human rights including access to housing everywhere and to prevent forced evictions of people from their homes or lands (COHRE, 2007).
COHRE collects relevant information about violations of human rights which is used as a tool for action. It sends its officials to collect facts in key countries of focus. They conduct local investigations, hold interviews with the parties involved, examine laws and policies surrounding such issues and conduct any additional research needed to compile accurate reports about land and housing rights violations in specific situations. COHRE uses the information collected to draw conclusions and to offer recommendations and alternatives. This research is conducted in collaboration with local partners. The data collected is also used for consultation purposes and negotiations with key players and local governments (COHRE, 2007).
In some situations, COHRE publishes the reports in order to mobilise the affected communities to pressure the relevant governments to end practices of human rights violations or to introduce new laws, policies and programmes that make ensure that all people enjoy housing rights. Where local groups and communities engage in campaigns and protests against housing rights violations, the organisation assists them to write formal protest letters to relevant governments, to present submissions to government missions, to expose their grievances through the media and to launch non-violent joint action campaigns. For this reason, COHRE has become one of the most influential NGOs in pressuring governments to act against acts of human rights abuses and in rallying public opinion against such acts. In extreme situations of housing rights violations, where relevant governments fail to act, the country is included in announcements about human rights violators made by the organisation every year. This approach has proved to be effective in the past in making international awareness of housing rights violations, thereby shaming the perpetrators, while at the same time highlighting the importance of promoting housing rights for all by governments and individuals. Where necessary, COHRE submits these reports to UN human rights mechanisms as well as to other regional and international bodies which help to put pressure to relevant governments to act (COHRE, 2007).
Further, COHRE provides extensive training to local partners including workers of local NGOs and groups, government officials, judges and lawyers. It offers various training programmes tailored to meet the needs of the different groups but which relate to housing rights. It also pushes for policy and legislative reforms at regional and international levels to ensure that housing rights are fully protected. COHRE also offers legal advice on domestic cases related to violation of housing rights and in case domestic courts fail to provide adequate remedy, it assists in taking the cases before regional and international judicial forums (COHRE, 2007).
Freedom House
This NGO is based in Washington, D.C. in the US and was established in 1941. The mission of this organisation is to carry out research and to promote and advocate for political freedom and democracy (Mutua, 2009). The organisation conducts research on issues related to human rights all over the world and publishes annual reports on the basis of the information collected. In the past, Freedom House has assisted citizens in various nations to oppose dictatorial regimes such as in the cases of Chile and Central America. It also helped to end apartheid in South Africa, genocides in Rwanda and Bosnia, and the Soviet War in Afghanistan. It also assisted in ending brutal violation of human rights in Iraq, Burma and Cuba (Mutua, 2009).
Freedom House has been very active in advocating for the rights of political activists, journalists, religious believers and trade unionists. In the past, it has also been involved in the establishment of international bodies that oppose violations of human rights such as North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) (Mutua, 2009). More recently, Freedom House has supported citizens in achieving successful revolutions in Tunisia, Egypt, Serbia, Libya, Ukraine, Serbia and Kyrgyzstan (Mutua, 2009). Generally, the organisation has been regarded as a reliable source, though its critics have accused it of biasness for promoting the interests of US government abroad.
Conclusion
In conclusion, there is a huge number of NGOs in the world which dedicate themselves to protecting the rights of human beings and ending acts of abuses of human rights. One common aspect of most of these organisations is that they conduct research on issues related to violation of human rights and use the information as a tool of action. However, they usually focus on different aspects of human rights and employ different approaches while dealing with the different aspects of human rights. Amnesty International and Human rights Foundation fight against all forms of violation of human rights. Human Rights Watch focuses on freedom of religion and expression, opposes capital and discrimination based on a person’s sexual orientation. World Organisation Against Torture focuses on practices that amount to human torture, arbitrary detention, extrajudicial executions and forced disappearances. Journalists for Human Rights focuses primarily on making people aware of their rights and empowers minority and marginalised groups to oppose any practices that amount violation of their rights. COHRE focuses on housing rights while Freedom House advocates for political freedom and democracy. Though all of these organisations have influenced public opinion and policies adopted by governments in one way or another, Amnesty International, Centre of Housing Rights and Evictions and Human Rights Watch have been the most influential. This is because they have been most successful and most frequently engaged in activities meant to convince citizens, national governments, supranational bodies and United Nations to adopt their policies on human rights, compared to the other NGOs discussed.
References
Amnesty International (2012). “About Amnesty International”. Retrieved 13 May 2012 from, HYPERLINK “https://www.amnesty.org/en/who-we-are/about-amnesty-internationals”https://www.amnesty.org/en/who-we-are/about-amnesty-internationals
COHRE (2007). “Submission to the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights”. Retrieved 13 May 2012 from, HYPERLINK “http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/info-ngos/cohrekenya39.pdf” http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/info-ngos/cohrekenya39.pdf
Donnelly, J. (2003). Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice. New York: Cornell University Press.
Goodale, M. (2008). Human Rights: An Anthropological Reader. West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing.
Human Rights Foundation (2012). “Human Rights Foundation Mission”. Retrieved 13 May 2012 from HYPERLINK “http://www.thehrf.org/mission.php”http://www.thehrf.org/mission.php
Human Rights Watch (2011). “Our history”. Retrieved 13 May 2012 from HYPERLINK “http://www.hrw.org/en/node/75134″http://www.hrw.org/en/node/75134
Journalists for Human Rights (2009). “Success stories”. Retrieved 13 May 2012 from HYPERLINK “http://www.jhr.ca/en/index.php” http://www.jhr.ca/en/index.php
Lauren, P. G. (2011). The Evolution of International Human Rights: Visions Seen, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Mutua, M. (2009). Human Rights NGOs in East Africa: Political and Normative Tensions. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
World Organisation Against Torture (2009). “Global network fighting against torture and other human rights violations.” Retrieved 13 May 2012 from HYPERLINK “http://www.omct.org/”http://www.omct.org/
The History of the Texas
The History of the Texas Constitutions
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The History of the Texas Constitutions
The unique history of Texas as an entity and its constitutions that have evolved through a series of amendments to create Texas that we know today distinguishes Texas substantially from other states. A Constitution contains a set of essential principles or established precedents that directs how a state or other organization is governed (Sajó & Uitz, 2017). The state of Texas has passed through numerous iterations since 1824. Texas was considered a part of the United States of Mexico between 1824 and 1876, an autonomous republic, a state within the United States of America, and the Confederate States of America (Gantt, 2021). Therefore, Texas constitutions encompass all the documents that legally facilitated the establishment of the entity of Texas, outlined its people’s rights and responsibilities, and explained the domain and powers of the government. Texas constitutions, therefore, are all the constitutions that were drafted and promulgated from 1824, leading to its current Constitution of 1876. The current Texas Constitution is the seventh Constitution which has been preceded by six more constitutions between 1824 and 1876, with distinct differences as a result of amendments and redrafting to meet the different political ideologies and assure proper governance. At least 507 amendments have been made to the Constitution of Texas of 1876 to adequately address the changing needs of its people as well as ensure to facilitate effective and proper governance (Gantt, 2021).
Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States (1824)
The Mexican federal Constitution of 1824 was the first governing document that led to Texas’ constitutional government. It was the Mexican republic’s first constitution after the Mexican War leading to its independence from Spain. To some extent, this constitution was patterned after the US Constitution but with more resemblance to the Spanish Constitution of 1812 (Schofield, 2019). Some of the key components of the Mexican federal Constitution of 1824 include making Congress the final interpreter of the Constitution, making the Catholic religion the state faith, and marshaling public treasury support for the church. In the Constitution, the state legislative bodies elect the president and the vice president for four-year terms, and the Congress’ lower house could elect if there was a lack of majority or there is a tie (Atilano, 2021).
Furthermore, Congress was comprised of two houses and required to convene annual meetings from 1st January to 15th April. The Supreme Court and other department and district superior courts held judicial power. The Supreme Court has 11 judges and the attorney general but the Constitution did not attempt to define the confederacy’s state rights (Rojas, 2020). Other important stipulations in the Mexican federal Constitution of 1824 include the selection of senators by their respective state legislators for four-year terms. Therefore, the Constitution of 1824 was a republican Constitution that came at a point where the Mexican people had limited or no previous self-government experiences. As such, it set several democratic goals and established a federal republic comprising of the Mexican federal district, four territories, and 19 states (Rojas, 2020). The Mexican federal Constitution of 1824 was drafted to help govern the Mexican people after the exodus of the Spaniards. Besides, the Mexican Republic Constitution of 1824 had a provision that each of its 19 states should frame its Constitution, resulting in the drafting of the Coahuila and Texas Constitution.
Constitution of Coahuila and Texas (1827)
The state of Coahuila and Texas was formed from the combination of Coahuila state and the previous Spanish province of Texas. As such, the legislature of the resulting state was planned at Saltillo in August 1824 with Texas being represented by Baron de Bastrop (Haynes, 2017). The framing of the Constitution of Coahuila and Texas two years and was published on March 11, 1827. Therefore, the Constitution of Coahuila and Texas 1827 divided the state into three departments with Texas being one of the departments, represented as the District of Bexar. The Constitution also declared Catholicism as the state religion; assured citizens liberty, equality, security, and property; and forbade slavery and its import six months after the Constitution is promulgated (Haynes, 2017). Besides, citizenship was defined in the Constitution and its penalization was outlined. Popular vote elected twelve deputies as the unicameral legislature who represented the legislative power, and as such, Texas had two deputies. Other than their legislative functions, this body had sweeping powers as could elect officials if a majority was not met during regular voting, regulate militia and the army, and act as a grand jury on issues relating to election and politics (Gantt, 2021). Another key attribute of the Constitution of Coahuila and Texas 1827 was its mandate to protect the freedom of the press and promote education.
Within the Constitution, the governor and his deputy were elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The elected governor was empowered to grant pardons, make legislative recommendations, lead the state militia, and ensure the laws were obeyed. Similarly, the vice governor’s role was to serve as the overall police chief to oversee the departmental chief of police appointed by the governor and also preside of the council (Gantt, 2021). Other notable stipulations of the Constitution include the state courts holding judicial authority. However, the courts were not allowed to interpret the law rather just try cases such that violations were by a judge without a jury. This, therefore, meant that the Constitution’s promise for a trial by jury was never established. Furthermore, the promotion of education via setting up the school system was never accomplished. The few Anglo-Texans could not read the laws that were mainly published in Spanish. These issues with the Constitution of Coahuila and Texas 1827 led to widespread resistance to the government under this document, prompting new proposals by the Convention of 1833 to establish the state of Texas separate from Coahuila (Gantt, 2021).
Constitution of the Republic of Texas (1836)
In the middle of Texas, the 1836 Convention of fifty-nine delegates decided to hastily draft a Constitution for the new Republic of Texas which was ratified by the republic’s people via a vote. Considering the short time available for drafting, the Constitution that was drafted incorporated most US Constitution’s sections as well as Mexican law (Howell & Swanlund, 2017). The document is a resultant of the persistent threat of attack by Mexican cavalry. As such, the Constitution of the Republic of Texas of 1836 was drafted by combining portions of the US Constitution and from other modern state Constitutions. The new document was easy to read since it used popular words and phrases of older American constitutions. Common American features such as the three government branches (executive, legislature, and judicial); citizenship, “with the descendants of Africans and Indians”; checks and balances; male suffrage; bill of rights; and amendment methods (Acosta & Winegarten, 2021). Furthermore, the new document’s executive provision was similar to the American presidency, and the four-level judiciary system which comprised justice, county, district, and supreme courts. Evidently, the provisions in the Republic of Texas’ constitution were influenced by the Jacksonian ideas present in the states from which most of the delegates came. For instance, 14 of the delegates came from Tennessee. Annual elections were mandated, and office terms were shortened, ranging from representatives’ one-year terms to judges’ four-year terms. Similarly, some provisions were adopted from Spanish-Mexican law such as homestead protections and exemptions, community property, debt relief (Howell & Swanlund, 2017). Other notable laws include provisions that protect the rights of individuals in the republic’s unoccupied lands. Besides, the document incorporate the common law of England that facilitated handling of all criminal cases. This allowed Anglo-American immigrants to adapt well to the institutions of law and government in the Republic of Texas.
Constitution of Texas (1845)
This is considered by Constitutional scholars as one of the best-drafted state constitutions. Texas became extra careful when drafting its first state Constitution, resulting in the Constitution of 1845 that outlined Texas law in a clear and simple approach. This Constitution facilitated the establishment of the government of Texas as a state in the US. The Convention members of 1845 who framed the Constitution of Texas referred heavily to the Constitution of Louisiana and partly on the document drafted by the Convention of 1833 to promote a general plan of government and bill of rights (Gantt, 2021). The legislative department of the Constitution of Texas of 1845 was composed of 19-33 senators serving four-year terms and 45-90 House of Representatives serving two-year terms. Similarly, the constitution stipulated a two-year term for the governor with no more than four years in office in any period of six years. The governor was empowered to appoint the secretary of state, attorney general, and judges of supreme and district court, and confirmed by the senate (Morrow, 2020). The legislature was responsible for electing government officials including the controller and treasurer through biennial elections. Another notable change was that gospel ministers were rendered ineligible to hold legislative offices. The constitution further reassured homestead protection, community property recognition, and promotion of education. Amendments to the constitution would be proposed and ratified by a two-thirds vote of each house. As such, only one amendment providing for state official elections was ever made on the constitution of 1845.
Constitution of Texas (1861)
The constitution was drafted after Texas seceded from the Union in an attempt by the Convention delegates to transfer the statehood of Texas from UAS to the Confederate States of America. There were very few changes to the 1845 constitution, which include changing references from the United States of America to the Confederate States of America. The Constitution of 1861 also included a provision to mandate the state elected officials to ascertain their loyalty to the Confederate States of America through an oath (Gantt, 2021). As such, the new constitution was considered a conservative document that meant to mitigate fears of secessionists’ radical nature as well as smoothen Texas’ transition into the Confederacy. Besides, despite the new document’s elimination of the provision clause for slave emancipation, the secession movement ensured it did not legalize the resumption of the African slave trade.
The Constitution of Texas (1866)
The Constitution of 1866 resulted from the amendments made by the Convention of 1866 to the fundamental law, in addition to other actions relating to the presidential reconstruction. The proposed amendments were ratified via an election. The Constitution of Texas 1866 was amended with the move to allow Texas to rejoin the United States. Several changes were introduced in the new document including declaring the Decree of Secession null and void, acceptance to abolish slavery, provision of some civil rights to freedmen, renounce all war debt (Gantt, 2021). Furthermore, the governor terms were increased to 4 years, with at most 8 years of services in any 12 years. The governor was empowered to veto appropriations. Legislatures were mandated to be white men who must have lived in Texas for more than five years. Matters of education were also affected where black children would attend separate schools.
Constitution of Texas (1869)
The constitutional Convention of 1868-69 convened under the supports of Congressional Reconstruction Acts of 1867 but could not successfully complete a constitution. As such, the federal military officers ordered the work of the Convention to be gathered and published, resulting in the Constitution of 1869 which was accepted by the voters (Thompson, 2019). The new document’s bill of rights was a reflection of the intention of its framers on condemning secession and nullification. Furthermore, the United States Constitution was declared the supreme law. Issues such as slavery were prohibited in the Constitution of Texas of 1869 and it also recognized equality for all people. Other alterations include the setting of the House of Representatives and Senators to ninety members and thirty respectively. The terms of Senators were increased to six years. The fact that the 1869 Constitution was formulated in haste and under pressure from Washington, prompted much controversy among Texan political and social factions which also led to the disputing of the document’s legitimacy (Thompson, 2019).
Constitution of Texas (1876)
The Constitution of 1876 was written when Congress of 1873 was mainly controlled by Texan Democrats who decided Texas need a new Constitution (Gantt, 2021). The drafters of the Constitution of 1876 ensured that it generally reflected the public opinion unlike the Constitution of 1869, thus remaining in force. Therefore, the 1875 Constitutional Convention assembled in Austin replaced the 1869 Constitution with the notion that the new constitution had to hand power back to the people by restricting the state government. Some of the restrictions on the state government include creating a plural executive, the need for a balanced budget, the election of state judges by the people, and ratification of amendments to the people’s vote. Since its ratification, the 1876 Constitution has undergone a series of amendments leading to the addition of 216 new sections, removal of 66 original sections, and removal of 51 added sections (Gantt, 2021). Therefore, the current Texas constitution structure is considered Preamble, with 17 articles and 491 amendments, but unlike the US Constitution, it does not contain a ‘necessary and proper clause which renders it one of the longest state constitutions in America after Alabama’s constitution (Gantt, 2021).
The evolution of Texas Constitutions was affected by different political ideologies from the dominance of political parties during the framing of the different constitutions. For instance, Democrats are considered liberals while Republicans are conservatives, and as such, their respective dominance means Congress will be inclined to make provisions that are aligned with the ideologies of the ruling political party, which determines the accepted by the electorate (White et al., 2017). Texas is believed to have experienced Democratic dominance from 1848 t0 1960. From after Reconstruction, Texas politics were dominated by the Democratic Party until the 1990s. It is apparent that Texas voted for the presidential Democratic candidate in every election from 1848 until the victory of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 except in the 1928 election. Considering the fact that Democrats were pro-slavery pre-Civil War and Abolitionists, they influenced changes in the Texas Constitutions that include amendments that create provisions such as poll tax and white primaries that led to the disenfranchisement of Latinos, blacks, and poor whites. Evidently, Texas Democrats were divided as partly liberal, partly conservative, and moderate, meaning Republicans could easy dominate Texas politics easily especially towards 1960. For instance, the Republican strength increased in the early 1960s.
The division of Democrats on the support for the civil rights movement is evident from the fact that that outside of the South supported the movement while those in the South opposed it. With the passage of the Civil Rights Act 1964 and Voting Rights of 1965, the southern white electorate started to support the Republican Party. As such, the prominence of the Republican Party has grown since the 1960s, and it became the dominant political party in Texas by the 1990s (Huerta, J. C., & Cuartas, 2021). Since then, Texas has remained a majority Republican state to the present, rendering it a more conservative state than it is liberal.
References
Acosta, T. P., & Winegarten, R. (2021). Chapter Three. From the Republic of Texas to 1900. In Las Tejanas (pp. 45-69). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Atilano, T. I. (2021). The Status of International Law in the Mexican Constitution. In International Criminal Law in Mexico (pp. 49-69). TMC Asser Press, The Hague.
Gantt, F. (2021). 2 The Development of the Executive Article in Texas Constitutions. In The Chief Executive In Texas (pp. 15-39). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Gantt, F. (2021). 9 The Governor and the Legislature: Special Sessions. In The Chief Executive In Texas (pp. 220-234). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Haynes, S. W. (2017). Proceedings of the Constituent Congress of Coahuila and Texas, 1824-1827: Only Bilingual Constitution.
Howell, K. W., & Swanlund, C. (Eds.). (2017). Single Star of the West: The Republic of Texas, 1836-1845. Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press.
Huerta, J. C., & Cuartas, B. (2021). Red to Purple? Changing Demographics and Party Change in Texas. Social Science Quarterly, 102(4), 1330-1348.
Morrow, J. (2020). There Is Only One Texas Constitution.
Rojas, D. B. (2020). Mexico (Mexican United States). In The Forum of Federations Handbook of Federal Countries 2020 (pp. 215-225). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
Sajó, A., & Uitz, R. (2017). The constitution of freedom: An introduction to legal constitutionalism. Oxford, UK: Oxford university press.
Schofield, P. (2019). Jeremy Bentham and the Spanish Constitution of 1812. Happiness and Utility: Essays Presented to Frederick Rosen, 40.
Thompson, T. L. (2019). Representations of Texas Indians in Texas Myth and Memory: 1869-1936 (Doctoral dissertation).
White, K., Grossman, D., Stevenson, A. J., Hopkins, K., & Potter, J. E. (2017). Does information about abortion safety affect Texas voters’ opinions about restrictive laws? A randomized study. Contraception, 96(6), 381-387.
History and background of Israel
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History and background of Israel
The modern state of Israel is the result of campaigns that began in the nineteenth century. After the First World War, the British felt the need to honor the contribution of the Jews by establishing Palestine as their home. This made the Jews have hope in establishing their nation. This hope attracted many Jews from all over the world especially in the wake of Nazi persecution of Jews. The large numbers of Jews in Palestine raised fears among the Arabs, which led to the war between Arabs and Jews. Britain stopped the migration of the Jews as an attempt to solve the war. The Jews were not happy with this and had to seek help from the Americans. America and the British formed a committee that concluded that it was not possible for Palestine to host Arabs and Jews together (The American Schools of Oriental Research 45). The U.N. intervened, and its intervention led to the creation of a new state of Israel, which led to the Arab-Israeli war.
Ethnic and religious groups in Israel
Israel houses a number of ethnic and religious groups. Majority of the inhabitants of Israel are the Jews who comprise of 80% of the population. The other population consists of Arabs. However, Israel has some additional ethnic groups like the Samaritans. Religious groups divide the Jews into two main groups. There are those that are religious and others that are secular. The same case applies to the Arabs. There are a number of religious groups in which the Arabs divide themselves. Some of the religious groups of the Arabs include the Moslems, Druze and Christians (The American Schools of Oriental Research 44). Therefore, the state of Israel is a diverse one due to the number of ethnic and religious groupings.
Work Cited
The American Schools of Oriental Research. “State Formation in Israel and Judah: A Contrast in Context, a Contrast in Trajectory.” Near Eastern Archaeology 62.1 (2009): 35-52.