Recent orders
Do Environmental Restrictions Violate Basic Economic Freedoms
Do Environmental Restrictions Violate Basic Economic Freedoms?
Name
Institution
Do Environmental Restrictions Violate Basic Economic Freedoms?
Introduction
Everyone in the world today desires a clean and healthy environment. People also require a strong economy. However, environmental conservation is extremely expensive, suffocates economic opportunity and costs jobs. On the contrary, before the government came in with legislations, vigorous economic activities, for instance manufacturing, resulted in a fading and detrimental environment. The truth is that all everyone in the world wants is a high quality of life. However, this is being met at the expense of the very source of their livelihoods. This paper discusses whether environmental restrictions violate basic economic freedoms.
YES:
“It is critical for legislators worldwide to indicate that good objectives are more often than not accompanied by irrational and tyrannical regulations. There is a need for them to explain that the efficiency use of natural resources is not being disputed rather the question is how best this can be done through government directives and guidance. They need to let governments know that most executive solutions to environmental challenges tend to clash with primary economic freedoms” (Hardin, 2008).
NO:
“The human race is facing a gradual environmental destruction. Analysts are patiently waiting to see if world civilizations will dodge the destructive trap they have set for themselves. As much as some progress has been made in an attempt to deal with humanity’s dilemma, there is still much that is required to be done. It is unfortunate that most of the progress that have been registered in comprehending, seeking and describing solutions for the human predicament in the last three decades is being destabilized by environmental criticism” (Edmonds, 2006).
LO1: The Wider Implications and Effects of GCC, European and Global Integration on Organizations.
YES Hardin, 2008
Implications
The implications of environmental regulations in GCC, European and global integration have become complex and highly emotive. If sustainable development is to be attained, then this issue should be solved urgently. Due to worldwide economic interdependence as well as trade, liberalization combined with increasing environmental pressure there is a rapid interface between global trade integration and the environment. It is widely acknowledged that the environment and trade could mutually support each other. However, there are still disparities on effectual execution. The liberalization of trade through globalization has both positively and negatively impacted the environment. There is thus an ardent need of policy formulation in organizations to ensure that the net effect is positive (Christopher, 2007).
Legislations
One critical way of guaranteeing that the environment and trade are mutually supportive is by ensuring that globalization is paralleled with the intensification and development of successful and non-protectionist legislations on the environment at global, national and regional levels. Environmental policies do not offer incentives for work place technological innovations; this in effect does not promote economic effectiveness.
Relationship between Trade and Environment
The complex relationship between the environment and international trade was first debated in the 1992 Rio conference. This was followed by the 1996 World Trade Organization (WTO) ministerial conference where it was determined that a constructive relationship should have been built between work place sustainable development, trade and the environment. However, this relationship has not yet been built to date. Instead, there have been various environmental restrictions ranging from Sustainable Impact Assessments (SIAs), as well as CBTF (Capacity Building Taskforce on Trade Environment and Development) that have not assisted much (Panayotou, 2005).
NO: Edmonds, 2006
Sustainable Development
In the Doha1996 talks, the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) committed WTO members to guarantee that the result of the new round of talks would support sustainable development. The DDA mandated the CTE (Committee on Trade and Environment) to commence negotiations on particular aspects of environment and international trade relationships. The objective of these negotiations was to clarify the relationships between Multilateral Environmental agreements (MEAs) and WTO agreements. This was to be done while covering observer status and information exchange between MEA secretariats and WTO committees in order to liberalize trade in environmental services and goods (Babcock, 2006).
Liberalization of Environmental Goods
The DDA negotiations focused on eliminating tariffs and other barriers to environmental goods, for instance air filters and catalytic converters. The European Union perceived the liberalization of environmental goods as a primary tool to obtaining sustainable development. This has been heralded as a visible win-win situation for both international trade and environmentalists. It can favor the conservation of the environment in GCC countries through enabling them purchase environmental goods at lower prices (Christopher, 2007).
Eco labels
In Doha, ministers asked the CTE to be more attentive in several issues of its work layout. These included the impact of environmental regulations on market access, particularly for GCCs and a win-win situations when eliminating trade barriers to benefit the environment, sustainable development and trade. The position of the WTO Environmental Committee (EC) is that eco labeling schemes should be transparently designed according to international standards in order to avoid the creation of trade barriers. The European Union, on the other hand, feels that WTO members should consider technically assisting GCCs to enable them to conform to export markets eco labeling schemes. The flower, which is the European Union Eco label, allowed non-EU companies to penetrate the European market, thus positively effecting their work places (Panayotou, 2005).
LO2: Investigate the range and effects of legislation, directives and guidance and the processes organizations need to adopt
YES Hardin, 2008
The issues
Thirty years ago, when people started experiencing deterioration in the quality of their lives, they started supporting hard line policies to minimize pollution. These policies recurrently failed to match the claims of their sponsors. They also turned out to be rapidly and gratuitously expensive. Nonetheless, there was an improvement in the quality of the environment, particularly in the beginning. Today, individuals are rapidly getting informed that most of these policies are irrational and that even if they finally work out they result only in minute advances and at profound costs in economic freedoms and jobs. People globally are also beginning to realize that there is no real scientific basis for affirmation of harm to the environment or hazards to the public. The pendulum as envisaged is finally swinging in the opposite direction (Joan, 2007).
Logic in Dealing with the Environment
Conservatives worldwide, for instance Chinese, do not wish to go back to times when black smoke bulged from vents. However, they point out that logic can prevail when dealing with the environment. They believe that it is feasible for the environment to be conserved without necessarily sacrificing the freedoms for which world democracies uphold. Conservative legislature’s world over should, thus, be emphatic on the following issues: Economic freedom, regulatory abuse, an ethic of conservation, priority setting, and property based solutions and sound science (Babcock, 2006).
Legislators have a duty of explaining to governments that environmental conservation can be obtained by not providing many pages for people to evade rather by capitalizing on the inducement related to property ownership. Apart from that, they should argue that policies that are required by people in the world today should be based on sound science rather than tabloid science. Legislators need to explain that not all challenges are of the same significance and immediate regulations of all challenges may result to saving few lives while wasting lots of money (Baird, 2010).
NO: Edmonds, 2006
The Scientific Perception
The backlash by organizations is an outpouring of apparently authoritative opinions in media appearances, books and articles. They tend to alter what environmental scientists do not know. Put together in spite of the variety of their issues, forms and sources addressed, this backlash has generated a distortion of empirical science findings to support a political agenda and a predetermined world perception. Because of persistent repetition, this anti-environmental flood sentiment has attained a regrettable sensation of authority (Hirsch, 2009).
Right Wing ideology
This backlash is not synchronized in nature; instead, it seems to be created by diverse organizations. Some of these organizations are related to political groupings that have a right wing ideology. The extreme organizations are those that claim to represent a scientific perception only to hold up their perception that countries are going overboard with regulations, particularly as far as environmental conversation is concerned. They claim that restrained long-term challenges, for instance global warming, are not anything to be scared of. Such sentiments are not only troubling but they also obstruct and extend the already challenging task for reasonable and pragmatic solutions to humanity’s dilemma (Czech, 2008).
Most organizations readily seize issues that surround things that are familiar and physical for instance a local dumpsite. However, they have lots of difficulty with genetic variations or atmospheric dynamics. Consequently, it is easier to get organizational support against landfills than imposition of carbon tax to counteract global warming. Apart from that, organizations that are not trained to acknowledge the features of change face challenges in identifying and understanding the slow deterioration of humanity’s life support systems. For this reason, violent hurricanes get lots of attention while an increase in global temperatures is not thought out to be news (Joan, 2007).
Humanity Is a Threat to Itself
Organizations also have an inclination of focusing on more noticeable and instantaneous environmental problems typically described as contamination at the cost of declining natural ecosystems on whose sustained functioning humanity depends. They do not realize that humanity is a threat to itself through interfering on earth’s natural cycles. They pour into the oceans 200 percent of natural oil that emanates from natural seeps. They are also responsible for 50 percent of methane concentration in the atmosphere. While these organizations indicate that environmental conservation has improved scientific scrutiny indicates otherwise.
LO 3: Explore the socio-cultural, ethical and moral issues that affect organizations in the current economic environment to establish and implement good practice
Yes Hardin, 2008
The Facts
Pollution levels have dramatically fallen since 1970 when most pollution reductions were achieved at comparatively low costs. Two decades later, the emission levels had fallen by 39 percent, the same period witnessed a 97 percent and 41 percent fall in lead and carbon dioxide levels respectively. Government controls, however, have led to a slow down of these reductions.
Unworkable Controls
Regulating the environment has more negative impacts than just its high costs. Legislators should employ rapid litany of disgusting stories to show how ill regarded environmental controls while conveying little benefit lead to unintentional consequences for business, particularly Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) which are unreasonably owned and run by the minority. In the mid-80s, Cristobel Johnson’s family owned a sawmill in which they employed 30 workers in New Jersey. Based on harvest guarantees from the American forest service and loan assurances from the SMEs administrators, they invested $1.2 million in their business. However, in 1991 the spotted owl sanctions closed their mill making their equipments valueless and their expertise insignificant. The same government that had initially encouraged them to take the loan took away their capacity to pay it back (Panayotou, 2005).
Given that most organizations have an ambivalence approach to environmental conservation, it is very critical for conformists to approach this issue in a logical manner. Individuals must comprehend that it is not a must for environmental protection to be implemented at the expense of jobs. However, it is likely to cost jobs if organizations do not set aside the socialist model that they employ in conserving the environment (Christopher, 2007).
NO: Edmonds, (2006)
Healthy Environments
Most organizations are threatened by efforts geared towards preserving healthy environments. Loggers find themselves jobless when the endangered species act is enforced. Ranchers’ livelihoods are threatened by higher fees for public grazing lands. Libel suits for damages on the environment threaten Petrochemical Company executives. These lead to an unethical total resentment by organizations of policies and suggestions to enhance the wellbeing of humanity because of the social cultural way in which they perceive things (Baird, 2010).
Wise Use Socio-Cultural Movement
It is unfortunate that most of these organizations have been engaged in the wise use socio-cultural movement. It has attracted an immense coalition of groups that includes executives of extracting and mining organizations motivated by their profits and right wing ideologies. As much as some of these organizations perceive that environmental controls unjustly distribute environmental protection costs, others are unethically and immorally motivated by a gluttonous desire for uninhibited economic expansion (Edmonds, 2006).
Unhampered Environmental Exploitation
The wise use socio-cultural movement steadfastly opposes government efforts to sustain environmental quality through postulating that environmental measures create pointless and oppressive barriers that suppress economic growth. They see no need for restrictions in the exploitation of environmental resources for immediate economic profits. They opine that this kind of exploitation can be stepped up without unfavorable lasting consequences. The wise use, thus, advocates unhampered drilling and excavation in protected areas, national forests and parks with full reimbursement for any loss of property value due to environmental measures. By advocating the perception that instantaneous economic interests are served best by maintaining the business as usual status quo, the wise use activists stir up restlessness amongst the rest of the world populations who feel ill-treated by environmental controls (Hirsch, 2009).
Wise use supporters are not honest about their objectives and enthusiasm. Most of the organizations that join them impersonate groups’ conscious of environmental quality. They acquire names that resemble genuine public interest advocates through aggressive mimicry only to work against their implied interests in what is referred to as green scamming. For instance, the WeBabcockers for More Fish sought to minimize federal protection of endangered fish to ensure that restrictions are not imposed on extracting industries in the area that used the river’s waters. Armed with millions of dollars in their budget, they funded some legislators’ campaigns and indeed the legislators managed to pass a bill that limited funding to environmental conservation of a national park (Czech, 2008).
Conclusion
Habitually conservatives have emphasized on economic growth at the expense of environmental challenges. They have battled environmentalists all along and they have lost all along. Environmentalists have had the moral high standing; this is in spite of the fact that they characteristically have not offered the most favorable solutions. Environmentalists have been on the wrong side of an emotive issue.
Postscript
The dilemmas facing this generation as it attempts to adjust its lifestyle to the requirements of an environment that is suddenly threatened are the hardest ever known. It is not just about being ordered to refrain from a number of profitable activities to conserve the environment, there is a likelihood of people being requested to cut back on sections of their livelihoods that they may have taken for granted. For instance, to cut back on carbon emissions, people would not be allowed to drive cars unless it is in emergency cases. A time is coming when people around the world will be told by their governments to separate their trash into organic waste, plastics, paper, glass and metals and to send it for recycling and subsequent reuse. However, these choices will be made by individuals through democratic suffrage and subsequent legislations. In such a situation an alternative is not envisaged for that could mean the end of the biosphere and that includes humanity.
References
Babcock, D. “Grown under Glass: The Future of Greenhouse-Grown Products,” Produce Merchandising, (2006): Web.
Retrieved from :< http://producemerchandising.com >[Accessed December 20, 2013]
Baird J. The great new wilderness Debate (2010): Web.
Retrieved from :< HYPERLINK “http://ijw.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/Dec09-IJW-vol-15-no-3small2.pdf” http://ijw.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/Dec09-IJW-vol-15-no-3small2.pdf> [Accessed December 20, 2013]
Christopher F. The legacy of Rio, State of the world. (2007): Web.
Retrieved from :< http://www.worldwatch.org/files/pdf/State%20of%20the%20World%202008.pdf>[Accessed December 20, 2013]
Czech B. In my opinion: The steady state economy. What it is, entails, and connotes. Wildlife Society Bulletin, (2008): Web.
Retrieved from:<http://steadystate.org/files/SSE.pdf[Accessed December 20, 2013]
Edmonds J. Executive summary International emissions trading & global climate change: impacts on the cost of greenhouse gas mitigation. Pew Center on Global Climate Change. Washington DC. (2006): Web.
Retrieved from:< http://www.venturacountystar.com >[Accessed December 20, 2013]
Hardin, G. The tragedy of the commons, (2008): Web
Retrieved from:<http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/162/3859/1243>[Accessed December 20, 2013]
Hirsch, J. “Greener Greenhouses Produce 21st Century Crops,” Los Angeles Times, May 14, 2009: Web.
Retrieved from:< http://www.newsday.com >[Accessed December 20, 2013]
Joan I. Placing nature: Culture and Landscape Ecology (2007): Web
Retrieved from :< HYPERLINK “http://www-personal.umich.edu/%7Enassauer/Publications/Placing%20Nature.pdf” http://www-personal.umich.edu/~nassauer/Publications/Placing%20Nature.pdf>[Accessed December 20, 2013]
Panayotou T. Economic growth and the environment. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva. (2005): Web.
Retrieved from:<http://www.unece.org/ead/sem/sem2003/papers/panayotou.pdf>[Accessed December 20, 2013]
Do Darley and Batson have the Correct Interpretation of the Good Samaritan Parable Why or Why not
Name:
Institution:
Course:
Tutor:
Date:
Do Darley and Batson have the Correct Interpretation of the Good Samaritan Parable? Why or Why not?
Introduction
Since conventional times, moral behavior has been used to imply the ability to pursue good and that humans have a primary moral obligation to further what is good at all levels. According to the fundamental definition of morality, an individual who constantly pursues evil is considered immoral and shunned from the society. In other words, morality is directly compared to virtuous behavior. At this point, it can be argued that this perception is flawed because it fails to factor in the situational factors of an individual. From an objective viewpoint, it can be contended that the situational conditions of an individual contribute significantly to the mode of conduct that the same assumes. The definition of morality needs to be aligned to this in order to enhance objectivity and social justice. It is in this regard that this review argues that indeed, Darley and Batson have the correct interpretation of the Good Samaritan parable.
Societal values and virtues are employed in providing guidance and direction to the society. Most importantly, they are imperative in shaping the model behaviors that are assumed by the society. One of the main sources of the fundamental values and virtues is religion. At this point, it should be appreciated that religion has a significant degree of influence on the holistic wellbeing of an individual. In particular, it can be argued that it virtually compels an individual to a certain mode of life. Thus in this consideration, it can be argued that it lacks the fundamental objectivity and can not be used to define morality. By laying great emphasis on religious matters and roles, the Levite and priest failed to provide the much needed assistance to the wounded man. This provides a classic illustration of how religion undermines the pursuance of good behavior.
Further, it should be acknowledged that the situational factors greatly influence the type of behavior that is assumed by an individual. From a practical point of view, it can not be disputed that certain activities are given priority over others. Naturally, human beings tend to focus more on activities that enhance their individual worth. From a consequentiality viewpoint, it can be argued that this is ethically right because such activities have beneficial effects. Usually, external societal forces also determine the kind of behavior that individual assume.
With regard to the context of the Good Samaritan, Harman cites Darley and Batson who posit that the Levite and priest were possibly rushing to attend to religious matters (324). It is certain that this was their areas of priority because they derived beneficial effects from the same. Not only did they get material benefits from the same, but the also got social approval from this. Material benefits in this respect were basic for survival and social approval enhanced their individual worth and social acceptance. Logically, it is true that they would have preferred attending to these concerns to helping the wounded man.
Arguably, the Good Samaritan was also not compelled by any external factors to pursue the perceived virtuous act. Rather, he was able to help the wounded man because he did not have immediate business to attend to. Moreover, considering the fact that he was not religious, he did not have immediate responsibilities to attend to. At this point, it can be speculated that if he would have had other priority matters to attend to; it is unlikely that he would have helped the wounded man. This is well exemplified by the findings of the experiment that was designed by Darley and Batson (Harman 324).
Furthermore, it is probable that his lack of a religious background made him define virtuous behavior in different manner. Thus it can be speculated that he was merely acting according to his personal understanding of good morals. Of great reference is the fact that the Good Samaritan was not in a hurry to attend to other issues. He had sufficient time and could even spare some to attend to matters that were not in his schedule. If the priest and Levite had extra time, it can be argued that hey would possibly behave in a similar manner too.
Conclusion
The societal definition of good values and virtuous behavior is influenced by various factors. Its failure to include situational factors can be considered to have compromised objectivity. As it has come out from the study, situational factors play a critical role in influencing the behavior that individuals assume under different conditions. Notably, this explains why the priest and Levite did no behave like the Good Samaritan. From a consequentialist standpoint, pursuance of personal good is justified. Most importantly, it is certain external factors such as social responsibilities directly affect the way humans behave too. It is in this consideration that this paper concludes by ascertaining that Darley and Batson have a correct interpretation of the parable of the Good Samaritan.
Work Cited
Gilbert, Harman. Moral Philosophy Meets Social Psychology: Virtue Ethics and the Fundamental Attribution Error. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New Series, 99 (1999): 315-331.
Do Child Health Practitioners Adequately Assess and Manage the Pain of Children and Young People with Autistic Spectrum Disor
Do Child Health Practitioners Adequately Assess and Manage the Pain of Children and Young People with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Associated Learning Disabilities? – A Review of Literature
Introduction
The Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD) or Autism or Autistic Spectrum refers to a group of psychological conditions that have the ability to impair communication and social interactions of the people suffering from it often resulting in highly repetitive and severely restrictive behaviour (Lord, et al., Nov, 2000). The Medical Research Council (MRC) report in 2001 reported that every 60 children among 10,000 children below the age of 8 years suffered from autism (MRC Review of Autism Research: Epidemiology and Causes, Medical Research Council, 2001). The Office of National Statistics in 2005 also reported a growing concern of the prevalence rate of the autism among the school-age population in the UK. According to the report, the school-age population in the UK showed a prevalence rate of 0.9% autism, thereby directing the focus on increasing the research around ASD in order to make headway into the identification and treatment of the disorder and care for the autistic children and young adults (Mental Health of Children and Young People in Great Britain, Office of National Statistics, 2005). Shore had pointed out that the growing awareness of the disorder is due to the recent developments in research where the statistical evidences with regard to the severity of the problem are being highlighted and thus responsible for raising the concerns (Shore, 2003). An article by Roberts in the BBC News in September 2009 also reported that almost 1 in every 100 children in England are suffering from autism, thereby creating concern over the future of these children and young adults in specific and the population of England in general (Roberts, September, 2009). This figure is supported by the National Autistic Society, which reports that “The estimated number of children under 18 with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is 133,500” in the UK (Statistics: How Many People have Autistic Spectrum Disorders? The National Autistic Society). According to the report by the Autism Research Co-ordination Group, “… debate continues as to whether this reflects a real increase in prevalence or changes in diagnostic practice and increased public and professional awareness…. Either way, recent years have seen a reported surge in demand for autism provision across health, education and social services…” (First Annual Report, Autism Research Co-ordination Group, 2006). The subject of whether child health practitioners adequately assess and manage the pain of children and young people with autism spectrum disorder and associated learning disabilities has been chosen for a variety of reasons; personal interest factoring quite highly; this is due to previous experience in this area, and recognising that improvements could be made in order to improve patient experience. With growing awareness about ASD and importantly its impact on the children, different researches are being undertaken to investigate and understand the different aspects of the ASD. The aim of this assignment was to discuss whether pain can be assessed and managed adequately for children and young people suffering from the Autism Spectrum Disorders and associated learning disabilities.
In this essay / literature review, a list of key words used has been provided, along with a brief description of the research method, a definition and a brief explanation of Autism Spectrum Disorder. It discussed the role of the health care practitioners especially those dealing with paediatric care, with regards to pain assessment; it also examined the current methods of pain assessment used in the UK and discussed on the subject of whether these tools can be effectively transferred for use with children with ASD and associated learning disabilities. A discussion of stereotyped attitudes was also undertaken to understand the role that these attitudes play in the development of pain assessment and management endeavours for the children and young adults suffering from ASD. To carry out the literature review, a combination of two qualitative research methods was used. The content analysis and the textual analysis methods were used in combination to review the literature obtained by using a key word search of the available databases on various ASD related literature. The content analysis helped to review the content of the literature based on specific use of words and emergent themes. Textual analysis method helped to review the literature based on the use of phrases, terms and words. The keyword search used included terms such as autism, autism spectrum disorder, pain, children, families, hospital, pain expression, pain management, pain assessment, facial expression, behavioural pain response, psychological pain response, intellectual disability, developmental delays, pain reactivity, behavioural measures, paediatrics and autism, communication, communication deficits, autistic communication, role of doctors in pain assessment, parent report, behavioural changes due to pain, characteristics of autistic patients, paediatric autism, sensitivity to pain, etc. To obtain the literature for this review a search of computerized databases was undertaken. The databases used included CINHAL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health), The Cochrane Library and The National Electronic Library for Health. The results of the keyword search provided abstracts to be read and printed, and in some cases in order obtain the full article a search of journal databases was used including The Clinical Journal of Pain. Using these searches six papers were found, which were then critically reviewed for their relevance and accuracy. All of the databases found articles related to the topic, however, many were irrelevant due to a number of factors including not being directed purely at children, discussion about chronic pain, etc. It was felt that a focus on acute pain would be more beneficial in developing this review as compared to a wide angled approach to the topic. A brief read of the abstracts provided by the searches allowed for a decision whether to include or exclude the paper based on the predefined criteria. After reviewing the papers, two main themes emerged that were explored: assessment of pain, including behavioural clues and paediatric health practitioners role in management of pain of autistic children and young adults. This essay was thus an attempt to review the existing literature in order to answer the question “Do Child Health Practitioners Adequately Assess and Manage the pain of Children and Young People with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Associated Learning Disabilities?”
Stereotyped Attitudes towards Pain Expression by Children with ASD
The common approach to expression of pain by autistic individuals is that they are either insensitive or indifferent to pain (Symons, Shinde and Giles, April, 2008). The work of Nader, et al. titled “Expression of Pain in Children with Autism” highlighted the lack of parental reports of pain in children with Autism (Nader, et al. March / April, 2004). The inability of children and young adults to verbally communicate the intensity of the pain often leaves them at the mercy of their parents or the healthcare provider who often may not adequately and accurately gauge the pain (Dubois, et al., 2009). Sometimes the pain expressing behaviour of children suffering from ASD are mistaken as repetitive behaviour and neglected. The study by Hennequin, Faulks and Allison also highlighted the inability of the parents to gauge the pain expressions of young children with psychological or developmental disorders in comparison to healthy children (Hennequin, Hennequin, Faulks and Allison, 2003). The question that can be brought forth at this point in the discussion is whether this difference in perception of a child’ pain by parents is due to their inability to understand what the child is communicating or whether is it based on the stereotyped attitude about such children. Another critical stereotype that impacts the assessment and management of pain in children is that they do not experience pain similar to the adults due to psychological immaturity (Why Children’s Pain Matters, Pain: Clinical Updates, International Association for the Study of Pain, September, 2005). The impact of this stereotype is greater on the children with developmental disabilities like ASD. Even young adults with ASD are prey to this stereotype, resulting in neglect of their pain or the attempts by adults to understand their physical pains. The misconceptions about the impact and addiction effects that pain reducing narcotics and other drugs on children, especially those suffering from ASD, result in children not being administered pain reliving medication on time or in adequate quantity (Why Children’s Pain Matters, Pain: Clinical Updates, International Association for the Study of Pain, September, 2005). One of most important factors that can critically affect the way a child perceives the approach of pain assessment and management by the health practitioners is a poor hospital experience. A lack of understanding of pain may result in withdrawal and fear within an autistic child thereby impacting the possibilities of future hospital admissions and treatments of pain. It is easy to understand that the children and young adults with ASD may require individualised care and attention, however rarely practiced (Gilbert-MacLeod, et al. 2000). There is a need to change this attitude, particularly with regard to children with special needs. Messmer, Nader and Craig had identified that children with autism were thought to lack the same “thresholds” with regards to pain as did normal children or individuals (Messmer, Nader and Craig, 2008). The apparent reduction in sensitivity to pain had given rise to opioid-excess theories which suggested that autism can be handled by managing the diet of a young child, especially by ensuring gluten and casein free diet (Myers and Johnson, November, 2007). Thus, these different stereotypes impact the pain assessment and management abilities of parents as well as the healthcare professionals caring for children and young adults, especially those suffering from ASD and other developmental diseases.
The review identified different pharmacological as well as non-pharmacological approaches currently used to treat and manage paediatric pain and thereby highlighted the void in the present system to deal with the pain of children and young adults suffering from ASD. The concentrated and combined approach of the healthcare practitioners and parents (family) in helping children with ASD to deal with chronic pain was emphasised through this essay. This in turn led to the understanding that there is a need to develop the way the health care professionals approach and deal with pain in children suffering from ASD. The lack of existing research on pain assessment and management for children with ASD was highlighted in the research to stress upon the need to develop this field through research. It was also pointed out that the healthcare practitioners will have to use their knowledge as well as experience in treating such patients and contributing to future research is any headway is to be made towards obtaining a standardised yet responsive approach to pain management of young patients with ASD. The use of family support and development of specialised tools like Dis-DAT (Disability Distress Assessment Tool) that measure the distress in patients with ASD were highlighted to suggest that a combined approach will have to be adopted to care for pain of children with ASD. Thus, the review helped to discover the gaps in the present system of healthcare and the role that healthcare practitioners can play in future for the assessment and management of pain in children and young adults with ASD and associated learning disabilities. This also helped to answer the question that the role played by the healthcare practitioners in dealing with the pain of children and young adults with ASD is currently insufficient and inadequate.
References and Bibliography
Almond, C. (1999). Acute Paediatric Pain – Assessment and Management. Australian Emergency Nursing Journal, vol. 2(3), pp. 22-24.
Berde, C. B. and Sethna, N. F. (2002). Analgesics for the Treatment of Pain in Children. New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 347, pp. 1094-1103.
Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Recognition and Assessment of Acute Pain in Children (1999). Royal College of Nursing. London: RCN.
Hennequin M., Faulks D. and Allison P. J. (2003). Parents’ Ability to Perceive Pain Experienced by Their Child with Down’s syndrome. Journal of Orofacial Pain, vol. 17, pp. 347–353.
Howard, R. F. (2003). Current Status of Pain Management in Children. JAMA, vol. 290, pp. 2464-2469.
Koh, J. L., Fanurik, D., Stoner, P. D. Schmitz, M. L., and VonLanthen, M. (1999). Efficacy of Parental Application of Eutectic Mixture of Local Anaesthetics for Intravenous Insertion. Paediatrics, vol. 103(6): e79.