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Different analysts have come up with different argument regarding whether geography is actually an art or a science
Introduction
Different analysts have come up with different argument regarding whether geography is actually an art or a science. It has been established to incorporate both aspects in its study. Geography has been known to involve the study of the earth. It is purely theoretical since most of its facts are based on assumption which the researchers keep changing due to varying findings. It incorporates the study of the mysterious features of their earth and attempts to explain their existence such as land and water and why they are separated. Features of the land as well and its inhabitants and why people/animals settle and adapt to various environments. Modern/recent geographical study incorporates the analysis of the complex features of planet earth and its distinction with other planets. The study of geography can be classified into physical, regional and geomantic which are art, human and environmental which bring out the science in geography. This paper will however focus on exploring the facts of Geography that make it a science. This is not limited to biological science but also includes disciplines such as political science and its relationship to Geography. Nonetheless, the most significant attribute that makes Geography a science is the human study of geography. It describes and shapes the interaction of man and various environments that they may be exposed to. The political, cultural, economic and social factors are characterized.
The Place of Geography among Other Sciences
According to Taylor, (1990), “eight of the main divisions in the geographical field are included in the large circle, while outside the circle, other eight major sciences with which these divisions are closely allied.” This shows that the divisions of study in geography are greatly based on scientific concepts. Similarly, the sciences allied to geography draw their context of study from the geographical content. These two are inseparable since as discussed in the introduction, science seeks to explain some of the theoretical facts of geography. For instance, the interaction between the environment and the earth. Geography describes the earth and all its surroundings. It also gives detailed analysis of the components of the earth and their effects to humans should some events occur. These events such as earthquakes are purely scientific. They likelihood to occur is based on the explanation of the world and its contents by science. This is a clear description of the relationship between Geography and science. Taylor, (1990) further describes Geography as, “… concerned with the description, localization, and explanation of the facts relating man to his material environment.” This like many other descriptions of the discipline is not pressed too far. However, it gives and undoubted connection of the subject to science as is the basis of the essay. The various arguments that have qualified the reference of the discipline as a science include:
Definition
The definition of a concept or a particular discipline goes a long way as far as description of its nature or role is concerned. For instance, the definition of geography gives a clear description of the discipline as a science. Though no definition is deemed to be perfectly correct, many scholars have resorted to defining it as a discipline dealing with environment and humans and their relationship to the earth. It is also agreeable that some of the theoretical aspects such as the components of planet earth which include the core and the crust have a scientific assumption which they are based on. There is also a belief of science being what people who call themselves scientists actually do. Scientists create assumptions or anticipated results regarding a certain matter, they then research, maintain the findings proven and eliminate those proven not to be true.
In Geography, geographers’ research, they also create assumptions of the outcome they expect based on their study. Upon finding of the actual facts, they draw a conclusion based on the most convincing facts. With this description, it would be justifiable to comment and state that geographers are scientists since they do what they describe as what they should be doing as earlier described. However, it is worth noting that elements of geography are science, but elements of science are not geographical. They only support the development of the discipline in making practical the findings.
Geography’s Varying Nature
When looking at the common component of both geography and science, the earth and humans/animals are identified. In actual sense, these are the main components of science as well. There is no one specific method that designs the process of research (Hartshorne, 1958). This applies to both science and geography, thus another similarity. The world is believed to be changing with time so as the living things existing in it. Its existence in today world largely differs with the nature years ago however little. Though the spa issues might be discussed and analyzed, the changes are different with differing degrees. It has been experimentally proven that the similarity in varying nature goes further to proving the relationship between geography and science, thus its classification as a science.
Environmental Issues
The world has discussed the effects of formation of the ozone layer for over 100 years all over the nations. The issue has been popularized in awareness campaigns with education offered over its cause and results to global warming. Today, the effects are felt slightly and are believed to increase with time unless caution is taken. In relation to the subject matter, global warming is a geographical topic of discussion since it involves the effects of unwanted material over the air and overheating to melt mountain ice and drain the water to the rivers. The causes are however scientific in the inclusion of components such as smoke in the air, deforestation which eliminates the material that would purify the harmful component. The solution which involves constructing of Green houses is also a scientific procedure. This is a clear indication of the interrelation of the two disciplines, thus qualifying geography as a science. It further shows that most of the problems caused to the earth’s centre are due to biological negligence. On the other hand, the solutions lie with the same unit, biology. It is also clear that the joining of the two aspects during study and research goes a long way towards establishing hat geography is fully a science rather that a science and art.
Research Carried Out Using Scientific Methods
Williams, (2008) argued that, “So many years’ geographers followed scientific methods, in order to shape geography into an academic subject and recognized fully as a science. But has this been achieved?” this brings to light the group of researchers who feel that the contents in geography should be given fu; recognition as a scientific unit and totally scrapped off of the art perspective. The opposite is also true y those researching on its basis as an art. However as (Williams, 2008) argues, the research of the geographical material with the use of scientific methods qualifies it to be a science. The knowledge was evidently gained following the observation and deduction of laws governing changes and conditions and the test of these conditions experimentally. There have been academic journals, books report written in regard to the nature of Geography. Most of the research they entailed was based on scientific findings. Though not scientific in the perspective of disciplines such as chemistry, biology and physics, it incorporated simple facts of all the units mentioned.
Link to biology
Geography has been compared and linked to biology for many years. Considering that Biology is a science, this gives it a scientific nature due to the evident connection. For most physical geographers, there is need to collect quantified earthly elements such as soil that will give the actual result when tested to reveal the likely changes of the earth. For instance, the collection of soil may be tested for various changes and elements. The method used to test these components is purely biological. Just like the tests fro elements such as manure and humus is carried out in the study of biology, the same is applied in geography which relate the changes to occurrences of the earth. It was earlier discussed that the discipline relates to science in that it provides a detailed analysis on the effects of the environment to the geographical components such as soil and further, to humans. The test of these data is undoubtedly a biological procedure, thus providing an inevitable link of the unit to science. Williams, (2008) suggests that, “This on it sown suggests that geography is a science and this fulfills a detailed observation and testing deductions by experiment.” It also shows that geography incorporates human elements which traditionally use qualitative data. Since a human element is not numerical, many people would also interpret it to be scientific. Most areas of interest in its link such as the quantitative nature of collection also prove it as a science.
Geography and Computational Science
Armstrong, (2000) stated that, “The common thread that ties together such seemingly disparate activities is a shared focus on the application of advanced computing to problems that heretofore were either intractable, or in some cases unimagined.” This should give view of the inability of geography to become practical without the support of scientific strategies and arguments. Also, geography plays a significant role in terms of the opportunities it has that lie at the intersection of computational science and geographical modeling. The application of scientific technology in geography to prove desired/predicted results is also a way to show the connection between the two and further description of geography as a science. Geographers have specified test models for many decades now where computational science has made it available to pursue research and teaching initiatives. The science has made significant contributions towards this achievement. This proves that most of the geographical hitches can only be solved sufficiently by scientific procedures and experiments. As (Armstrong, 2000) implies, there have been numerous hitches where other methods have been used to find permanent solutions. Though they have worked occasionally, it has been for limited periods before they recur. Computational science that applies technology has enabled the establishment of what id believed to have bee a permanent solution. Though scholars are quite optimistic, time will prove the effectiveness of the procedure, thus scientific role. This has also proven that the relationship between geography and science makes geography a science.
Conclusion
Though the research that proves this has received numerous criticisms, it is evident that geography is a science. Some scholars and researchers have gone as far as demanding the scrapping of the unit as an art. They base this n the fact that the discipline cannot be practical especially in research with the absence of scientific contribution. The paper has also established the relationship between the two and the role each plays in building the other. It is therefore undisputed that geography is more of a science than an art. Though researchers are finding enough evidence to prove that it is not an art, its contribution from science gives it more weight as a science than art.
References:
Armsrong, M. (2000). Geography and Computaional Science. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 90(1). pp 146-156.
Hartshorne, R. (1958). The Concept of Geography as a Science of Space, From Kant and Humboldt to Hettner. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 48(2). pp 97-108.
Taylor, G. (1990). Geography the Correlative Science. The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, 1(4). pp. 535-550.
Williams, B. (2008). Is Geography a Science? Philosophy of Science. Retrieved from http://scienceray.com/philosophy-of-science/is-geography-a-science/3/
Different bird species
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Introduction
Different bird species inhabit different areas ranging from plains to forests. The mature forests can be replaced by a new environment in case of fire and woodcutting. During forest regeneration, it passes through the stage where many shrubs are found. Certain bird species utilize the new environment as their habitat.
Birds living in disturbed forests are often called shrubland birds. In the last 50 years, the population of shrubland birds has decreased in their habitats. Fire control, human land development, and reduced shrub area due to the recolonization by mature forests decrease the habitats for these birds. Currently, the remaining sections after woodcutting are the main settlement areas for these bird species. Shrubland birds occupy the place of clearcutting a year or two after the harvest, and their population peaks after 4-8 years. The recent demand to stop clearcutting in the USA has lead to the development of the different harvest methods which offer new habitats for shrubland birds, beside the clearcut areas.
The authors Perry and Thill have addressed the problem of the impact of logging on the shrubland birds. They hypothesized that extensive clearcutting is a method of creating habitats for particular birds without fire. The authors have included twelve different bird species in their study. Eight of the species were early shrubland birds, and three other species were associated with the less intense disturbance of the forest during clearcutting. The last species included the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), which is a significant nest parasite of shrub-nesting birds.
Material and Methods
The study was performed in the Ouachita Mountains of west-central Arkansas, east-central Oklahoma National Forest, and the Ozark-St. Francis National Forests in Magazine District. The population of the bird species was followed in 20 areas, which were divided into five groups. Each area contained over 70 year-old forests with similar pine and hardwood trees in abundance. Each group in the different areas was later treated with one of the harvest methods, which include modified clearcutting, single-tree selection, group selection, and shelterwood. One group consisting of four areas was untreated. The areas were compared two years before the treatment, and in next 16 years after treatment, with the year 1993 being Year 0. The bird surveys were performed between May 3 June 12 during the breeding period. Five stands were picked in each plot in a manner that they were more than 150 meters apart and at least 90 meters from boundaries.
Results
The density of the vegetation in the areas has increased. The overstory trees were constantly increasing in all sampled plots while the midstory vegetation has increased significantly in clearcuts and shelterwoods. During the first year, the woody shrub layer was the biggest in the controls. However, the clearcuts, shelterwoods, and single-tree selection have developed more dense shrub layer over the period of 5-16 years.
American Goldfinch population peaked after 3-5 years, except for clearcuts (1-3 years). Blue grosbeak detections peaked in shelterwoods (3 y), single-tree (5 y), and in clearcuts (8 y). Common Yellowthroat peaked after 3 years, except for clearcuts (5 y). Field sparrows were only detected in clearcuts, shelterwoods, and single-tree selection (3-5 y). Indigo bunting species has peaked in all stands after 3-5 years. Northern bobwhite was detected mainly in clearcuts after 5-8 years. Praire warbler detections peaked in shelterwoods, single-tree (3 y), and clearcuts (5 y). White-eyed vireous peaked after 8 years while Yellow-breated chat peaked after 5 years only in harvested areas. Hooded warbler’s peak was detected after 12 years. Kentucky warbler peaked after 8 years in harvested areas only. Northern cardinal was detected mainly in shelterwoods and clearcuts with the peak being after 12-16 years. Brown-headed cowbird, which is parasitic to shrubland birds was detected in harvested areas with a peak after 3 years (Perry and Thill Web).
Discussion
The bird population, in general, have changed as expected. In the first years after the harvest, together with the increase of midstory and shrub levels of vegetation, the significant increase in population of shrubland birds was observed. Depending on the type of harvest, the peak was observed between 3 and 8 years after the harvest. On the contrary, the species that inhabit the areas with less disturbed forests have reached the peak population after 12-16 years. This shows that the shrubland birds prefer woody shrubs while the latter prefer forests with a developed midstory level. The parasitic cowbird arrived together with shrubland birds on the harvested areas. Its population peak is related to the peak of the shrubland birds population, confirming that it relies on their population.
The decline of the populations starts as early as 5 years after the harvest for field sparrow while the other species’ decline start 10 years after the harvest. This is a result of incremental changes in the forest level densities found after each year, showing clearly how different habitats influence the biodiversity of the forests.
A comparison performed between different areas shows several correlation, and there were no species found in control areas, in the majority. This is not a surprise because they have low shrub and midstory level densities. In fact, only four species were observed, and the total mean detection was 9-30 times lower than in harvested areas. Although there were many differences in the various species in harvested areas, the mean values show that the clearcuts offer the best habitat for shrubland birds, followed by shelterwoods, single and group selection, in that order. The shrubland bird species preferred slightly disturbed forests like Kentucky, and hooded warblers preferred shelterwoods and single-selection woods over the clearcuts, which were inhabited by the shrubland birds. This was probably the outcome of reduced nesting places for this species.
Clearcuts have generally reported the highest detection rates, especially after 5-12 years. At this period, the other harvested areas will have already regenerated. The species, which prefer slightly disturbed forests like Kentucky and hooded warblers remained in the clearcuts even 12-16 years after the harvest. The next most profitable, in terms of detection increase area, was shelterwood. This can be attributed to the removal of the overstory since they can quickly develop shrubs and midstory. In addition, it was found that a few of the bird species have preferred this area.
Conclusion
From the work of Perry and Thill, one can conclude that if humankind is willing to maintain the biodiversity and the population of certain birds, clearcutting of the forests is one of the best options. This method, which is substituting natural fires, generates the habitat for various birds, which can live only in these areas. Unfortunately, the public opinion does not allow for the extensive clearcutting that can sustain the population of the shrubland birds.
Perry and Thill have studied different methods of harvesting and their influence on the bird population. In that study, we find that the shelterwood forest harvesting method can be a preferable alternative to cleacutting, which will sustain the population of shrubland birds and be acceptable for public opinion (Perry and Thill Web).
I chose the article because it shows that destruction is sometimes a source of life in nature. Unfortunately, the ecological movement, which tries to preserve certain areas, can lead to accidental extinction of the other species.
Work Cited
Perry, R.W. and R.E. Thill. Long-term responses of disturbance-associated birds after different timber harvests.” Forest Ecology and Management, 307: 274–283. Web. 4 Oct. 2013.
Types of Pumps
Pumps
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Pumps are devices used to transfer fluids mechanically and are classified into three major groups depending on the system used to transport the fluids. Fluids transported by pumps are gases and liquids. It is also worth noting that pumps are of different sizes and operate through various energy sources such as electricity and manual operation (Girdhar, 2004). Pumps are also used in many areas including aquarium and pond filtering, oil pumping and in biochemical processes.
Types of Pumps
Pumps are categorized into various groups depending on their method of displacement which includes positive displacement, impulse, velocity, gravity, steam and valveless pumps.
Valveless Pumps
These pumps help in transferring fluids in both biomedical and engineering systems and it does not have valves present to regulate direction of flow. They may be used in aiding blood circulation and in microfluidics where they are used in pumping sensitive bio fluids.
Gravity pumps
These are pumps that use syphoning system by using downhill flow in drawing water from far underground in raised places to users in lower regions.
Steam pumps
These are historical pumps which are powered by steam engine as well as pistonless pumps. Although these kinds of pumps are not very efficient, they are really cost effective.
Velocity pumps
These types of pumps involve addition of kinetic energy to the fluid in order to enhance speed of the fluid flow. They are further categorized into educator jet pump, mixed flow pump, axial flow pump, radial flow pumps, and centrifugal pumps depending on the way the velocity gain is achieved. Velocity pumps have continuous energy and are also characterized with conversion of added energy to increase velocity as well as conversion of increased velocity to an increase in pressure (Nesbitt, 2006).
Impulse pumps
These are types of pumps that use pressure created by gas or gas is trapped in the liquid especially water which creates pressure that pushes part of the liquid upwards. They include hydraulic ram pumps which are powered by hydropower, pulser pumps powered by kinetic energy and airlift pumps powered by air inserted into pipe (Nesbitt, 2006).
Positive displacement pumps
This type of pump transfers fluids by trapping a fixed amount and driving the confined amount into the release pipe. Others use mounting cavity on the suction part as well as a decreasing opening on the discharge side. It involves circle of operations where fluid moves into the pump cavity while the opening on the suction enlarges before the fluid flows out of the discharge while the opening collapses at a constant volume (American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2007). This type of pump is very effective compared to other pumps because it produces similar flow at a given speed regardless of discharge pressure.
However, any increase in internal leakage amid high pressure may hinder the rate of low. Positive displacement pumps are further classified into various groups depending on the mechanism used in transferring the fluids. The classifications include rotary type positive displacement, reciprocating type positive displacement and linear type positive displacement pumps (American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2007).
Summary
Pumps are generally very important devices particularly in the field of mechanical engineering. Pumps play major role in making work easier just like any other machine and further guarantee efficient and perfect results (Srinivasan, 2008). Perhaps life could have not been that easy in almost every field without discovery of pumps. Pumps have undeniably helped every person apart from the engineers and any further invention of more efficient pumps may add great value to the field of mechanical engineering.
References
American Institute of Chemical Engineers. (2007). Positive displacement pumps: A guide to performance evaluation. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Girdhar, P. (2004). Practical Centrifugal Pumps. Burlington: Elsevier.
Nesbitt, B. (2006). Handbook of pumps and pumping. Oxford: Elsevier in association with Roles & Associates.
Srinivasan, K. M. (2008). Rotodynamic pumps: (centrifugal and axial). New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers.