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Vegetation Measurement
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Vegetation Measurement
Vegetation measurement is the measure of vegetation in a specific area. It helps people understand the vegetation structure and its composition. The methods implemented in measuring vegetation include cover, frequency, density, biomass and structure. This report seeks to explore only two methods; cover and density showing how they are used to measure vegetation.
The methods used in measuring density differ from the other. These methods vary depending on the different parameters. These parameters are vital in ecology and forestry. The different methods include:
Point frame method
This method was an original proposal of Madden and Levy in 1993. The horizontal point frame method entails of a frame. The frame has three parallel transverse rails with punched holes at regular intervals. Estimation of vegetation was achieved through pushing pins at each hole then the hits corresponding to the vegetation recorded. The calculation of the vegetation density was achieved through;
Dv = (1/ Lp) x (Nhits/ Nholes)
Lp is the length of the pin in meters while is Nholes the overall number of holes. This method, according to Dudley is the one of the most objective measuring methods of vegetation density. Previous methods have shown that this method is efficient, reliable and accurate.
Cover board method
In this method, a white board with grid is horizontally moved away from the observer and the distance, L, is then recorded. The grid has half of its points covered with vegetation from the observer’s location. On a random distribution of vegetation, the density is calculated through;
e˄ (-Dv_l) = 0:5
Dv = (-1/L) ln 0:5
The advantages of this method were that it required little equipment, it was rapid and that it provided approximates over great distances in scant vegetation. However, this method relies on subjective approximates of fractional coverage from the observer, which is prone to differ with another causing substantial error.
Plant cover is the percentage of ground surface that is under vegetation or other coverage like the rocks, moss, litter or bare-ground. Different types of measurement are used in measuring the plant cover.
Basal cover
This is the measure of the proportion of the plant extending into the soil. It is usually more stable from one year to another and changes minimally due to the fluctuation of climate or usage by grazers. It is commonly used for trend evaluations or calculations of species structure.
Foliar cover
This is the measure of a leaf’s exposed area in vertical projection. The cover equals the size of the shadow with the sun at noon. The small openings in a leaf are excluded. This method is highly vulnerable to perennial fluctuations due to biotic or climatic factors. It may be very difficult to measure apart for some form of growths like shrubs, cactus and forbs.
Canopy cover
This is the estimate of the area of influence of a particular plant. The total canopy may over exceed 100% due to overlapping of shadows from overlapping plants. These methods of evaluation of the vegetation measurement are important because they help the users of the land particularly the farmers to know which areas are good for farming. It also helps understand the climate area of certain plants and boost their growth by providing a conducive environment.
Works cited
Basic Problems and Techniques in Range Research: A Report of a Joint Committee of the American Society of Range Management and the Agricultural Board. Washington: National Academy of Sciences- National Research Council, 1962. Print.
Wirth, Troy A, and David A. Pyke. Monitoring Post-Fire Vegetation Rehabilitation Projects: A Common Approach for Non-Forested Ecosystems. Reston, Va: U.S. Geological Survey, 2007. Print.
Sixties Liberalism and Revolution in Manners
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Corse
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Sixties Liberalism and Revolution in Manners
Sixties Liberalism and Revolution in Manners by Kenneth Cmiel is an article that argues civility is the law of the land. Civility as a form of protests, ensures there is no violence involved. Civility was however quite difficult to defend because of civil disobedience instigated by leaders such as Martin Luther. Civility proved to bear no fruits during protests as compared to uncivil protests and that is why most protestors prefer uncivil protests. During protests, defending and maintaining civility is quite hard because most of the process were uncivil. Incivility is not the easiest nor is it the safest way of conducting protests but for protestors more often than not using incivility get what they are asking and although uncivil protest is not necessary it is however essential. For most protest during Civil Rights movement leaders including Mahatma Gandhi and Thoreau had proved essence of uncivil process.
Movements during the ‘60s used both violent and non-violent means during the Civil Rights movement. This period served as “jumping off point” where authors questioned limit of civility as well as the powers of the government when it comes to restricting protests. Uncivility in protests were seen as being against the norm of Americans and thus many uncivil protests were often quelled by the police. Civility in the 60s crashed including language, dress, sexuality, style and beliefs. White Southerners believed that the countercultural society threatened the American civil lifestyle and made a comparison to the Victorian ideals in the ‘20s. Countercultural responded by stating when forced civility was used then there was constraints when it came to freedom of expression and speech which was against the rights in the constitution. There were changes that were made by the Supreme Court redefining the line in which civility as well as the law overlapped. Flexibility was allowed for some cases however boundaries were kept on certain institutional civilities including the schools.
Works Cited
Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening
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Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening
The poem “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost written in 1923 pictures a setting of a scene with wood and in a snowing evening that is hauntingly barren and pastoral. The poem is about a moment in nature whereby the author pauses for a moment in the wood admiring he beauty of snowy evening. The great works of Frost were seen as a gift and his poem stopping by the woods in a snowing evening is presented and viewed to be a musical poem with the application of great rhythm and having a direct touch that enhances the calmness and assuring nature of the poem (Heitman, 35). The main theme brought out in the poem is that of a person being able to concentrate fully on fulfilling their promise with the calmness in nature as they are not distracted by nature of life.
The analogy of the poem presents two varying messages that could be liked with the blues music whose rhythm would be sly and charming inspiring smiles on the audience even though their messages are sad and dread. The calm rhythm used by the author suggests on how everything was alright s the message of the words showed how everything was not alright. The development of this essay shows the major theme of the poem that is the central concentration of fulfilling promises and accomplish duties of life without distractions presented by the pleasures of life, thus showing the theme of duty and responsibility (Heitman, 35). Fulfilling promises and accomplish of duties presented in the poem is a lesson that is projected for the audience especially being adult thoughts. The lesson shows that no matter how one needs to stop and need to stay for the pleasure of nature promises have to be met as well as responsibilities. The idea of accomplishing and fulfilling duties and promises is developed throughout the poem by the use of literary elements such as repetition, rhythm, personification, mood, euphony and the title of the poem.
Most people have often assumed the poem to be a contemplation of death with most of the power based on the line and notion of the author that the woods were “lovely, dark and deep” (Frost, 13). The poem developed by frost was open to interpretation and with the bittersweet complexity of his life, it was assumed to show the complex mix of the transcendent and the tragic in the human experience (Heitman, 36). The author shows the theme of fulfilling promises as well as accomplish duties when he states that before he can rest, he “had miles to go” (Frost, 15&16). As suggested by the title of the poem stopping by woods on a snowing evening shows how the author could not help but be arrested by the beauty and lovely sight of the woods which shows how nature provides a respite from the society and work demands. The author, however, even though allowing himself the small respite from worldly concerns, he pulls himself together nudging himself to move on. The theme is developed clearly in the concluding passages that elucidate the central theme of fulfilling promises and accomplishing duties through the following passages. ‘The woods are lovely, dark and deep. But I have promises to keep. And miles to go before I sleep. And miles to go before I sleep (Frost, 13-16). The author applies the uses of repetition in the last sentences to show that he was aware that he had miles to go as well as emphasize the responsibilities that are pressing. The author applies a regular rhythm capturing the conflict between human and nature, as well as showing the differences between the promises and obligations that adults have in life. The main point of the poem is shown whereby the traveler from an adult perspective stops in woods to admire beauty to when he decided to restart his journey when he realizes his duties. The second stanza applies personification whereby the author personifies the thinking of the horse when it stands as if it understood the owner’s urge to stop. Imagery is used to develop the setting of the poem helping the audience to picture the woods, how dark they were and snowy showing the power of nature that made the traveler stop despite having responsibilities. The story applies euphony when the author takes us through the woods that ought to be scary but the pleasing sound provides calmness and comfort that the traveler wishes to stay without the troubles of the world. “the only other sound’s the sweep / of easy wind and downy flake” (Frost, 11-12) lines of the poem sets the artful mood of the poem which is relaxing that as well shows the realization of the traveler that he has to move on. Parini as well quotes Robert Penn Warren in support of the theme whereby “A native takes, or may take, a place for granted; if you have to earn your citizenship, your locality, it requires a special focus.” (Heitman, 36). this shows that in the poem concentration is required to fulfil the promises and accomplish responsibilities as well.
Developed with many themes the poem “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost was open to interpretation by the reader. The literary devices used in the poem, however, analyses the central theme of the poem to be duty and responsibility that shows on fulfilling promises and accomplishing duties one needs concentration. Use of repetition, rhythm, personification, mood, euphony and the title of the poem emphasizes on the important lesson the poem intends to articulate which is everything is alright as compared to the interpretation of the poem meaning death. The regular rhythm that is steady throughout the poem shows that there is nothing odd from the ordinary in the poem at all. The poem tends to show the realization and the self-awareness the traveler had on his duties as compared to the argument that the author was contemplating death.
Works cited
Frost, Robert, and Susan Jeffers. Stopping by woods on a snowy evening. New York: Dutton, 1978.
Heitman, Danny. Verses and Adverse. 2014. Pdf file