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Transaction Cost Analysis Past, Present, and Future Applications
LITERATURE REVIEW
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Date
Transaction Cost Analysis: Past, Present, and Future Applications
This journal is quite informative because it gives a lot of insightful information on Transaction Coast Analysis (TCA). Through it, the authors reports on the research work done to reveal more about it. A part from explaining this concept, it traces its historical development, roles and the relationships it has had with other relevant disciplines. It goes ahead to focus on its applications, dimensions and validity. All these are very important data which when exploited can create sense to the readers and enable them comprehend this issue much comfortably.
However, the article is criticized for lacking a sound evidence for the arguments presented. The arguments are so shallow and do not contain a lot of explanations. For instance, the writers state that it is related to fields such as political science, corporate finance, sociology, business strategy, contract law and marketing. However, it does not go deeper to explain how it has influenced these disciplines. This leaves a lot of unfilled gaps with a number of questions unanswered. Instead of focusing on the practicality of the subject matter, the paper concentrates on its future applications.
These problems can be solved by creating more time to conduct an extensive research to discover more about TCA. A rigorous study should be carried out to come up with sound evidence enough to give the research its meaning. This is the only way through which the pending questions will be ultimately answered. The paper should not be too futuristic. Otherwise, it should give concrete evidence on the stated facts. He should be realistic and shift from the use of assumptions which may be so misleading. The research should not be based on rumors, but on well researched facts. Thus, it will become valid to give an authoritative report. By doing this, the research will give full information regarding this issue.
Literature Review
Literature Review
Everyone has an opinion on which way is the best when it comes to raising a child. Popular concepts emerging today in the media are gender neutral parenting or free-range parenting. Different parenting styles can have a major impact on how a child is raised and their view of the world. Psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study and discovered the four different parenting styles are authoritarian parenting, authoritative parenting, permissive parenting, and uninvolved parenting CITATION Bau66 l 1033 (Baumrind, 1966). Within the authoritarian parenting style, the child is expected to follow strict rules created by the parents. If the child is noncompliant, the results could be firm punishments. Example, the “because I said so” or “no nonsense” type of parent. The authoritative parenting style is like authoritarian parenting style; rules are created, and the child is expected to follow them, but the difference is that it with this style, the line of communication is open to the child.
The permissive parenting style requires very little from the child. Permissive parents can be seen taking on the role of a friend to their child. An uninvolved parenting style has very low requirements. The parent is detached from the child’s needs and regret all things to do with the child. Each parenting style can also lead to different attachment styles which can follow the child into adulthood this is an important topic because doing the research could show that the specific parenting styles and negative and positive effects on children also effects carry over into adult behavior. The parenting styles do tend to differ when you look at different races and social classes. The small but important text that does exist on middle-class black families suggests that the experience of being black and middle class is different than that of the black working-class and poor. Middle class black families face a problem whereas the disadvantages of being black and the advantages of being middle class are combined shaping a complex multidimensional middle class black identity. My hypothesis is that the parenting styles will differ once you go higher in the socioeconomic classes. If the African American families in a lower income area, their parenting style will mostly resemble authoritarian parenting style.
Research questions:
Do African American parenting styles vary by social class?
Is there evidence to suggest that African American and white parenting styles differ?
Are African American families or communities characterized by one of the four parenting styles?
Source 1.
Studies that find African American parenting practices to be more authoritarian and parent- focused than those used by middle-class whites are now interpreted from a cultural and contextual perspective The sample included 156 6- to 9-year-old African American children living in single-mother-headed households in rural areas, 82% of whom lived in poverty. The distal variables of maternal education, maternal religiosity, and adequacy of financial resources were linked with the proximal variables of “no nonsense” parenting, mother-child relationship quality, and maternal involvement in the child’s school activities. The proximal variables were, in turn, indirectly linked with children’s cognitive competence, social competence, and internalizing problems through their association with the children’s development of self-regulation.
CITATION Gen98 l 1033 (Brody & Flor, 1998)Source 2
how different styles of parenting may indirectly influence the addiction susceptibility of children through the mediators of attachment style and self-regulation. They ended up using a random cluster of adolescent high school student. The students were between 14-19. The results showed that authoritative and permissive parenting styles were associated with secure attachment whereas authoritarian and neglectful parenting styles were associated with insecure attachment. The findings of present study suggest the authoritative and permissive parenting styles as the most efficient styles and authoritarian and neglectful parenting styles as the most inefficient styles in terms of addiction susceptibility (Khouzestan Science and Research Branch)
Source 3
The differences between parenting types on the criterion measures were not as large as reported in Baumrind’s study, and significant effects were predominantly due to the poor scores from children with Unengaged and Authoritarian-Directive parents. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the Authoritative parenting type, the utility of using a typology, and areas for future research. CITATION Lau96 l 1033 (Weiss & Schwarz, 1996)Source 4
In this article a study was conducted where adolescents were, on average, 13.14 years of age at Time 1 and 15.05 years of age at Time 2. Nearly all adolescents and parents affirmed parents’ legitimate authority to regulate (and children’s obligation to comply with) rules regarding moral, conventional, prudential, friendship, and multifaceted issues, but they were more equivocal in their judgments regarding personal issues. With age, adolescents increasingly judged personal issues to be beyond the bounds of legitimate parental authority, but judgments differed by family income. Adolescents from upper income families rejected parents’ legitimate authority to regulate personal issues more at Time 1 than did adolescents from middle income families, but no differences were found at Time 2. With adolescents’ increasing age, African American families became less restrictive in regulating prudential, friendship, multifaceted, and personal issues. CITATION Sme00 l 1033 (Smetana, 2000)Source 5
Authoritative parenting practices have been found to be more effective in supporting middle-class European American youth. In contrast, more “no nonsense” and directive parenting practices have been shown to be more effective than authoritative or democratic parenting practices for supporting a wide range of positive youth outcomes in ethnic minority families. This study examined the paths of parental involvement across middle and high school, and how these trajectories related to adolescents’ academic, behavioral, and emotional adjustment. In addition, ethnic and socioeconomic status differences in longitudinal associations and the potential moderating role of parental warmth were assessed.
CITATION Wan14 l 1033 (Wang, Hill, & Hofkens, 2014)Source 6
In this article, the highlight was how middle-class black parents used extracurriculars as a crutch to the nurturing and supporting of their children. Race does differentiate priorities, actions, and values. Many families in this study sought out high status cultural activities for their children such as music lessons or public speaking and pressed children to excel in their activities. When the children had free time outside of their schooling, it was filled with individual tutors and additional classes. CITATION Vin13 l 1033 (Vincent, Rollock, Ball, & Gillborn, 2013)Source 7
Disciplinary style is especially important to address. Some African American mothers have been described as expecting unyielding obedience to parental authority with little concern for the child’s input. This pattern has been contrasted with more responsive and child-oriented approach usually associated with white middle class mothers. From the traditional race- comparative perspective, the parent-oriented approach of African American mothers has been regarded as problematic for child development. The characterization of African American mothers as parent oriented has been based on examinations of lower-income mothers. A study showed that upper-middle class African American mothers gave more orientation to the tsk, were more likely to reinforce correct response. Some similarities were discovered which was that both lower and middle-class minority mothers emphasized on obedience; however middle- income mothers more likely to promote obedience through internal controls, whereas lower income mothers employed more power assertive techniques.
CITATION Kel93 l 1033 (Kelley, Sanchez-Hucles, & Walker, 1993)
References
BIBLIOGRAPHY Brody, G. H., & Flor, D. L. (1998). Maternal Resources, Parenting Practices, and Child Competence in Rural, Single-Parent African American Families. 14.
Carolan, B. V., & Wasserman, S. J. (2015). Does Parenting Style Matter? Concerted Cultivation, Educational Expectations, and the Transmission of Educational Advantage. Sage Publications, Inc., 19.
Kelley, M. L., Sanchez-Hucles, J., & Walker, R. R. (1993). Correlates of Disciplinary Practices in Working- to Middle-Class African-American Mothers. Wayne State University Press, 252-264.
Khouzestan Science and Research Branch. (2011, September 11). The mediational pathway among parenting styles, attachment styles and self-regulation with addiction susceptibility of adolescents.
Smetana, J. G. (2000). Middle-Class African American Adolescents’ and Parents’ Conceptions of Parental Authority and Parenting Practices: A Longitudinal Investigation. Wiley, 1672-1686.
Vincent, C., Rollock, N., Ball, S., & Gillborn, D. (2013). Raising Middle-class Black Children: Parenting Priorities, Actions and Strategies. Sage Publications, Inc., 427-442.
Wang, M.-T., Hill, N. E., & Hofkens, T. (2014). Parental Involvement and African American and European American Adolescents’ Academic, Behavioral, and Emotional Development in Secondary School. Wiley, 2151-2168.
Weiss, L. H., & Schwarz, J. C. (1996). The Relationship between Parenting Types and Older Adolescents’ Personality, Academic Achievement, Adjustment, and Substance Use. Child Development, 14.
Literature Review on ornamentation of artwork
Literature Review
Contents
TOC o “1-3” h z u Mosaic PAGEREF _Toc378194653 h 3Fabric decoration PAGEREF _Toc378194654 h 4
Research shows that ornamentation of artwork adds value as well as, aesthetics; however this is mainly done by decorating the surfaces of the artwork using different motifs. The artwork includes decorating furniture, utensils and clothing. However, there is other ornamentation or artworks which mainly involve the body art. For example, in the past, the use skin was the major canvas for African expression for many years making ornamentation of artwork to become the source of interest for many Kenyans. Artwork ornamentation started gaining a strong foothold in the 1900s and from the anthropological research; it is evident that many cultures across the world are today using different forms of artworks as well as, ornamentation for different reasons (Gair, 2006).
Throughout the history of African culture, anthropologists noted that exploring ethnic motifs as well as, designs from the material culture of the Kenyan ethnic groups and utilizing them in ornamentation has become greater activity to the Kenyans people. Artwork and aesthetics ornamentation in Kenya can be examined in terms of the complexity required for creating and decrypting a work of art. As a result, the government of Kenya has proposed different laws for aesthetic complexity (Thomas, 2002). According to the first law of aesthetic complexity in Kenya, it is noted that too condensed encoding may make a decryption of a work of art impossible and is also perceived to be chaotic by the untrained mind, whereas too regular structures are perceived as monotonous, too orderly and not very stimulating. Thus a necessary condition for an artistic form or design to appear appealing is its complexity to lie within a bracket between monotony and chaos. According to the second law of aesthetic complexity, due to human predisposition, this bracket is invariably based on natural forms; with rather limited plasticity. The third law of aesthetic complexity states that aesthetic complexity trends are dominated by the available resources, and thus also by cost and scarcity.
Several strategies on the other hand have been applied to increase the aesthetic complexity and artistic expression virtual universes. The human mind seems to be able to recognize automation in pattern creation, and often resents too simple schemes. Presently, there are different motifs and designs in Kenyan. The designs include the use of paints, mosaic, fabric decoration, body artwork and many others. Painting in artworks use color pigment such as paints on distinctive surfaces. Painting allows artists to creatively decorate surfaces so as to make then appear like a different image without altering the actual image (Thomas, 2002). For example, “Rock paintings were believed to be the first painted works of art mostly done by the cave people. They painted using their fingers and soft colored clay on rock surfaces following examples of claw marks made by animals. Clearly, then, a well-known ideal source of paint material used on rocks came from colored soils obtained from organic or living matter as well as, inorganic (Baker, 2007).
The study carried out notes that, “red” paints were obtained from “iron oxide, black paints were executed from inorganic compounds such as manganese dioxide, as well as pine carbons. Therefore, the paints used by creative artists to produce painting artworks were also obtained by mixing ground color pigments and they may be added with various types of cohesive substances such as gum to bind them on a planned surface (Harrison, 2001). The various paint pigments have different mixing properties and they require diverse types of binders to transform them into workable tools. Painting is significant because it embellish o an artwork. Painting attaches our daily life to the aesthetics of colors. Conversely, through painting artists attain imitated creative styles to supplement with their attained skills of color use. Painting on the other hand can be used as a medium for sharpening a learner’s logical reasoning (Thomas, 2002).
As well as to discover the life and art of greatest painters as well as past events. Most artisans paint to review and to practice their theoretical knowledge of colors, and during critiques, painting artists acquires shared knowledge about techniques and colors.
MosaicIt is evident that ethnic motifs and designs derived from material culture can as well be utilized in ornamentation. For instance, the ornamentation of pieces of art work is significant in adding the value to the item and improves the quality and aesthetics. As a result, using of motifs that are derived from the material culture of our Kenyan ethnic groups will greatly help in preserving the culture and heritage of different communities (Baker, 2007). However, this can only be done by utilizing the motifs in ornamenting an individual artwork. Today, most Kenyans decorate their ornaments using mosaic. A mosaic is a type of artwork that can be made by arranging small colored pieces of hard materials like glass, stone and tiles to create a beautiful decorative pattern (Thomas, 2002). The history of mosaic art (2008) tells us that “mosaic history goes back some 4,000 years or more, with the use ofterracotta cones pushed point-first into a background to give decorations.” From this we can understand that any hard surface can provide a base for a mosaic artwork so long as it is firm, free from moisture and grease or liquids (Baker, 2007).
According to research, by the eighth century there were pebble pavements with different unstructured decorations of coloured stones used for creating patterns by the Greeks. These mosaic artworks were used for various purposes like making elaborate decorations in worship places especially churches, surfacing roads, house floor, walls, decorative utensils and furniture (Harrison, 2001).
Other creative artists who do mosaic use recycled materials from broken coloured pieces of terracotta carefully selected from earthenware of a kind like glass, pottery as well as tiles. Mosaic artworks are created in different ways, some display shapes of precise geometric patterns, while other are arranged almost randomly to display or show scenes of people and animals. In other words, there is no right or wrong choice for making mosaics artworks (Gair, 2006). This type of motif design has a great impact on contemporary art and the ornamentation skills on the designers and artisans.
Fabric decorationToday, fabric decoration as a type of motifs and designs are currently used for ornamentation in the Kenyan contemporary art. Fabric decoration is the art of embellishing cloth or fabric for pleasant appearances. Other artistic define “fabric design/decoration” as “the patterning of an essentially plain fabric to render it more appealing or to serve a particular purpose.” Hence, the designer of fabric decoration should not only be given the fundamental skills of depicting creative and artistic enhancements on the surface of a fabric for various intended aims, but they can as well learn about altering fabrics by sewing, given that this can also be an approach typically used to decorate fabrics. Other methods of fabric decoration include dyeing, bleaching, starching, waxing, printing and sewing (Harrison, 2001).
In Kenya, the antiquities or ancient past of fabrics starts from tribal people such as the Nilotes, Cushites and Bantus who used bark cloth for clothing, interior decorations, protection from bad weather by covering their naked bodies and very many other purposes (Gair, 2006). It has also been speculated in Kenya that the direct trade relations between the Indians living in Kenya and the people living in Western Kenya has resulted in the cross-cultural transfer of ideas and skills in fabric decoration, which later translated into the patterning of bark-cloth, initially exclusively, for royal usage.” This for many years has presented the value of promoting cross-cultural understanding by the people who used bark cloth. It also led to the discovery of more ways of decorating fabrics, which most Kenyans wear today for distinctive purposes. Literally, some sources suggest that decorated bark cloth existed in other parts of Africa (Baker, 2007).
References
Baker, G. (2007). The artwork caught by the tail: Francis Picabia and Dada in Paris. London: MIT Press.
Gair, A. (2006). Artist’s manual: a complete guide to painting and drawing materials and techniques. London: Chronicle Books.Harrison, H. (2001). Painting shapes and edges: give depth, clarity and form to your artwork. New York: North Light Books.
Herskovic, M. (2003). American abstract expressionism of the 1950s: an illustrated survey with artists’ statements, artwork and biographies. London: New York School Press.
Thomas, T. (2002). Artwork by Tona Thomas. London: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Indian Arts and Crafts Board, Sioux Indian Museum and Crafts Center.